To date, B.C. does not have any full-fledged national marine parks: rather, there is one national marine park reserve and a national park reserve with a marine component. Substantial areas
of three of the five marine regions in British Columbia are partially protected (Lien, 1989) by the marine component of Pacific Rim National Park Reserve on the outer coast of Vancouver Island (Fig
ure 28- 1), and Gwaii Haanas/South Moresby National Marine Park Reserve (Figure 28-2) on the southem portion of Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands).

Portions of this paper have been adapted from Hawkes (1990) and Hawkes (1992).

Pacific Rim National Park Reserve

On the exposed west coast of Vancouver Island, Pacific Rim National Park Reserve has a marine component that is 155.4 square kilometres in extent and is divided into three segments: Long Beach, the Broken Group Islands, and the West Coast Trail. An initial agreement to establish Pacific Rim National Park was signed by the federal and provincial governments on April 21, 1970. This agreement was subsequently amended on March 27, 1973, October 2 1, 1977, and February 19, 1987, (personal communication on Sept 6, 1990 with Claude Mondor, Environment Canada, Parks Service).

Under amendments to the National Park Act made in 1988, it became necessary to proclaim Pacific Rim as a National Park Reserve until resolution of the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council native land claim, which includes all the land and marine environment within Pacific Rim. To date (January, 1993), however, Pacific Rim still has not been proclaimed in Parliament (personal communication on January 14, 1993 with Bill Henwood, Environment Canada, Parks Service). Once it is proclaimed, the National Park Act will apply to Pacific Rim National Park Reserve as if it were a national park. The terrestrial portion of the Park is being managed under the National Park Policy whereas the marine component is being managed under the National Marine Parks Policy (Environment Canada, 1991).

Current status of the fisheries in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve is as follows. The only commercial fin fisheries that are open are salmon and herring roe-on-kelp. All commercial invertebrate fisheries are closed except for Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) and squid (Loligo opalescens). The recreational fin fishery and invertebrate fishery are both open, but an application was made by Parks

Gwaii-Haanas/South Moresby National Marine Park Reserve

A Federal – Provincial Agreement (Canada and British Columbia 1988) established the Haanas/South Moresby National Park Reserve and National Marine Park Reserve on July 12, 1988. The Canada/Haida agreement for joint management of the park was signed in 1992. The proposed marine park boundaries extend between six and ten kilometres from the coast and cover an area of 3,180 square kilometres, thereby encompassing a diversity of west coast marine environments. These boundaries are tentative, pending completion of offshore energy and mineral resource assessments (Lien, 1989). Petroleum and mineral resource assessments were finished in 1992, and final marine park boundaries were to be set by December 31, 1992 (personal communication on Sept 6, 1991 with Claude Mondor, Environment Canada, Parks Service). However, discussions between Parks Canada, the Haida Nation, and the Ministry of Energy, Mines, and Resources are still ongoing and it is expected that final park boundaries will be established sometime in 1993 (personal communication on January 14, 1993, with Bill Henwood, Environment Canada, Parks Service).

British Columbian Provincial Parks With Marine Components

Provincial marine parks, ecological reserves, and recreation areas that have marine components are subject to all of the jurisdictional complexities mentioned previously. Of key importance is the fact that the province lacks complete legislative and jurisdictional authority over the marine organisms and the marine environment in its parks. Pursuant to The Constitution Act (Canada, 1982), as amended, jurisdiction over harvesting of organisms (except for marine plants) in such marine protected areas rests with the federal Department of Fisheries and Oceans. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans has not invoked complete closures on the commercial and recreational harvesting of all fish and invertebrates in provincial marine protected areas. Several marine protected areas have no closures at all. Youds (1985) noted, “the marine conservation value of foreshore and subtidal provincial parkland [is] more symbolic than substantive.” Recent initiatives are, however, improving this situation.

Thirty-one coastal provincial parks are listed on the Coastal Marine Parks of British Columbia map (BC Parks, 1989a). Forty-two percent of these parks are exclusively terrestrial, with no foreshore or subtidal component. Cape Scott, which has a large foreshore and subtidal component, is not listed because it is treated as a wilderness park (Youds, 1985). The primary focus of these parks is the recreational boater (Deardon, 1985; Chettleburgh, 1985) and not the preservation of representative marine ecosystems or biodiversity.

Parks Plan 90 (BC Parks, 1990a) offered little hope for improvement in the representation and protection of marine environments in the provincial parks system. In Landscapes for B.C. Parks (BC Parks, 1990a) it was stated that,

It is a reasonable argument that park visitors, being largely land-based (even if they are boating or diving), are not inclined to seek recreational or appreciative experiences in these offshore, oceanic areas. These are areas of industrial interest (commercial fishing, shipping) but of marginal direct interest to the general public. Furthermore, the provincial Park Act has significant jurisdictional limitations in such areas. Therefore, it has been concluded that at this time offshore marine environments should be excluded from the Landscapes system and from consideration within the provincial parks system.

At present (December, 1993), there are 50 Class A provincial parks and 3 recreational areas that have an inter-tidal and/or subtidal component, totalling 92,399 hectares of marine waters (Table 28-2). Since Parks Plan 90 was written, BC Parks has recently shown renewed interest in provincial marine protected areas. The recent establishment of Broughton Archipelago Marine Park, which encompasses a large area of marine waters, constitutes a significant step toward more adequately protecting marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

British Columbian Ecological Reserves With Marine Components

In 1971, the Ecological Reserves Act was passed, formalizing the B.C. Ecological Reserves Program. Setting aside important, unique, or representative ecosystems and species is the main objective, with conservation and research being the primary function of the Ecological Reserves Program (BC Parks, 1989b). Most reserves are open to the public for non-destructive observational use but, unlike provincial parks, they are not created for outdoor recreation.

Of the 134 ecological reserves established in B.C. to date, 15 have intertidal and/or subtidal areas (Table 28-3). Only 13 of these are presently included in the ecological reserves system because reserves #95 and #96 have been transferred to federal jurisdiction to be included in Gwaii Haanas/S. Moresby National Park Reserve and National Marine Park Reserve. The 13 marine ecological reserves include estuarine, semi-protected, and exposed sites, as well as south and north coast localities. Most of these reserves are small (50-350 hectares), which brings up the whole question of the minimum reserve size necessary to maintain viable populations, a topic much discussed in the conservation biology literature (Gilpin and SoulŽ, 1986; Newmark, 1987, Usher, 1987). However, some of the smaller reserves seem appropriate for protecting local, unique, or especially diverse habitats, such as Race Rocks (reserve #97), Kerouard Islands, (reserve #96), and Pine, Storm, Tree Islands (reserve # 120).

The 13 ecological reserves include 47,697 hectares of marine waters. Two of them are noteworthy for their size and extensive subtidal areas: Byers, Conroy, Harvey, and Sinnett Islands (reserve # 103) and Checleset Bay (reserve # 109). The Checleset Bay Ecological Reserve is over 98% marine, runs 30 kilometres from east to west, and covers a total area of 346.5 square kilometres. It includes diverse habitats, both intertidal and subtidal. This showpiece reserve was set aside December 10, 1981 to provide sufficient high-quality marine habitat for reintroduced sea otters (Enhydra lutris), an endangered species.

Race Rocks (Ecological Reserve #97) in the Strait of Juan de Fuca has the most protected status of any marine protected area in the province. It is closed (by the Department of Fisheries and Oceans) to the commercial and recreational harvesting of all marine life except for recreational (sport) fishing of salmon and halibut. (Ed note: now closed to all in 2006–due to RockFish protection areas) The reasoning behind this decision is that salmon and halibut are migratory finfish and, therefore, transient in the reserve, so closing these fisheries in the reserve will do nothing to conserve these species. However, accidental catch of resident fish in the reserve, especially rockfish, is a matter of concern.

An additional 12 ecological reserves which do not contain marine waters do nevertheless, protect important marine features and organisms, such as seabird colonies and seal or sea lion haul-out sites. Collectively, provincial marine parks and ecological reserves cover 0.06% of B.C.’s marine environment (out to the 12 mile limit).

Table 28-2: Provincial Parks and Recreation Areas with Marine Components

Table 28-3: B.C. Ecological Reserves with Marine Components.

The management issues in both Checleset Bay and Robson Bight (Michael Bigg) underscore the need to protect whole ecosystems, not just individual species or portions of their immediate habitat. Yet, the many different levels of government with jurisdictional control over different parts of a single ecosystem are managing on a species rather than on an ecosystem basis.

Nor will simply setting aside marine protected areas be enough to preserve the biota. Monitoring and further research into individual species biology and ecosystem dynamics are particularly needed. So also are much more knowledge about the basic stewardship of protected areas (Deblinger and Jenkings, 1991) and significantly enhanced cooperation between provincial, federal, municipal and First Nations governments, including a more formal mechanism for facilitating cooperation on a regular basis (Westwater Research Centre, 1992b).

Even if marine protected areas within British Columbia were given complete sanctuary status, which they should be, they still would be inadequate for protecting much of the marine life within their boundaries if the marine environment outside their boundaries is not being utilized in a sustainable fashion. International transboundary issues with Alaska and Washington State are also a concern (Across the Border, 1992).

Threats to Marine Biodiversity

We do not have a history of sustainably managing living marine resources. Eradication of the sea otter from our coast around the turn of the century and the consequent sea urchin population explosion has left us with highly modified, rocky nearshore ecosystems that are much lower in seaweed biomass and diversity, than they should be (Chapter 11, this volume). By the early 1900s, whaling had eliminated humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) populations from the Strait of Georgia (Merilees, 1985). Before 1913, over 3,800 Steller’s sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) used the islands of The Sea Otter Group in the Scott Islands as a breeding rookery. Between 1913 and 1938, the Department of Fisheries and Oceans machine-gunned 29,800 animals, resulting in the permanent demise of The Sea Otter Group rookery (Obee and Ellis, 1992). The three remaining sea lion rookeries in the Scott Islands are the most important ones along the B.C. coast. The current population of Steller’s sea lions is only about one third of its former size, and the population has not recovered appreciably since being protected in 1970 (Olesiuk and Bigg, 1988).

Due to poor recruitment of young abalone into the population, both the commercial and recreational fisheries for northern abalone (Hatiotis kamtschatkana) are closed for five years (Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1990a). Many other non-traditional invertebrate species such as the geoduck clam (Panopea generosa), red sea urchin (Stongylocentrotus

franciscanus) and sea cucumber (Stichopus califomicus) represent “gold-rush” fisheries that are being operated on an experimental basis because their biology is incompletely known (Jamieson and Francis, 1986). Many of these species are locally ecologically important because they affect the distribution and abundance of other organisms in the system. Giant geoduck clams have an average age of seventy years and may live as long as one hundred and forty years (Jamieson and Francis, 1986). These clams are being harvested by divers using a technique that is the underwater equivalent of strip-mining.

Due to declining stocks, the commercial lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) fishery in the Strait of Georgia is closed and strict size limits have been instituted for the sport fishery (Department of Fisheries and Oceans, 1990b). Rockfish populations throughout the coast have shown drastic declines, over the past twenty years, due to overfishing (personal communication on October 29, 1992 with Bernie Hanby, Sport Fishing Advisory Board).

Sources of pollutants in the B.C. marine environment include municipal effluent (point-source and non point-source), dumping of dredged material, pulp and paper mill discharges, mine tailings, oil spills and related environmental mishaps. Despite government assurances (Langford et al., 1988) that marine environmental quality has declined along only a small percentage of the B.C. coastline, there is cause for serious concern because the chronic, sublethal toxic and synergistic effects of pollutants in B.C.’s marine ecosystems are poorly understood (Kay, 1989).

In the most recent synopsis of marine environmental quality on the Pacific Coast, Wells and Rolston (1991) state, “Signs of widespread ecosystem stress have been detected and degradation is pronounced in many inshore waters along the coast.” Dioxins/ furans and other organochlorine discharges from pulp mills are recent examples of land-based marine pollution that have had a significant local impact on marine organisms and associated fisheries in B.C. Chlorinated organic chemicals are also becoming more widespread through bioaccumulation in migratory seabirds and marine mammals (Wells and Rolston, 1991).

Some of the competing and potentially incompatible uses of the marine environment are summarized in Table 28-4. At present, all these uses are under the jurisdiction and control of various levels of government, different agencies, and legislation. Because the land and sea portions of the coastal zone have been managed separately, often with an ad-hoe approach, the ecological integrity of the zone has not always been adequately protected (Ray, 1988 and 1991). This fragmented approach has left us without an adequate overview of coastal zone planning, use, and management (Hildebrand, 1989).

1) Preservation/Conservation of wilderness, biodiversity, & unique or representative marine ecosystems

2) Marine environmental education areas

3) Scientific research areas

4) Preservation of the cultural heritage of first nations people

5) Historic sites

6) Recreation areas/tourism

7) Fisheries (finfish, invertebrates, marine plants)

8) Mariculture sites

9) Port sites

10) Oil & gas exploration/extraction

11) Mineral extraction

12) Ocean dumping

13)Discharge of pollutants (land-based, from point source & non-point source)

14) Marine transportation

15) Log handling

16) Undersea pipelines & transmission lines

17) Military uses

Table 28-4: Competing and Potentially Incompatible Uses of the Marine Environment.

Day and Gamble (1990) made a number of innovative recommendations for improving the approach to coastal zone management in British Columbia, but few if any have been acted on. As C™tŽ (1989) pointed out, our policies for addressing problems in the coastal zone are largely focused on symptoms rather than causes.

Coastal Zone Stewardship

Our dealings with the marine environment have tended to be exploitative, with emphasis on short-term gain rather than long-term sustainability. We need to transform ourselves from “gold-rush fishers” to responsible stewards of our marine environment and its diverse biological treasures. Integrated coastal planning, to date, has tended to focus on a relatively few major river estuaries, such as the Fraser (Dorcey, 1991), the Squamish, and the Cowichan (Morgan et al., 1988). There is now an urgent need to extend this approach to the entire B.C. coast. Four key steps are needed to do so.

First, coastal zone planning, research, and management need to be coordinated and a coastal ecosystem classification scheme and inventory developed. Similar recommendations were made fifteen years ago by The Coastal Zone Resource Subcommittee (1 977a) but, regrettably, these have been largely ignored. The marine and estuarine habitat classification system developed by Dethier (1990) for Washington State could be adapted for use in B.C. Existing baseline information should be compiled and data gaps identified, as was done by the Coastal Zone Resource Subcommittee (1977b). Wherever possible, data should be incorporated into a central data base with GIS (Geographic Information System) capability, so that maps providing information specific to a particular location can be generated. The provincial Ministry of the Environment’s Environmental Emergency Services Branch has developed such a marine data base for its Oil Spill Shoreline Sensitivity Model. At present, though, this data base is limited to the south coast and its main purpose is to identify shorelines sensitive to oil spills and cleanup operations (Howes and Wainwright, 1992). Only in this way will it be possible to determine the status of marine conservation and use in B.C.’s coastal zone.

The second step should be to ensure that the system of marine protected areas adequately represents genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. The Endangered Spaces Project’s (Earthlife Canada Foundation, 1991) land-use planning proposal for the Province of B.C. would provide an excellent framework for such an undertaking for the marine environment.

It is hoped that the new provincial Protected Areas Strategy (BC Parks and Ministry of Forests, 1992) will address marine protected area issues. Since conservation proposals for terrestrial ecosystems recommend preservation of twelve percent of the land-base (Brundfland, 1987), we should also set a goal of preserving, in marine protected areas, twelve percent (by area and content) of all marine assets in the coastal zone of B.C. These areas should be one hundred percent protected from consumptive use of any marine organisms. Other jurisdictions are far ahead of us in marine conservation. New Zealand is targeting ten percent of its coastal marine environment to be set aside in marine reserves (Ballantine, 1991) and complete marine fishery reserves are being proposed for the southeast coast of the United States (Plan Development Team, 1990). Bohnsack (1992) has presented extensive evidence that such reserves are the best method for protecting biodiversity and natural community equilibrium.

The third step should be to allocate more money for research on the basic biology and population dynamics of fish, invertebrates, marine mammals, and marine plants. Improved stewardship of the coastal zone also depends on experimental research into ecosystem function (Dorcey, 1983).

Fisheries often have been managed to maximize economic returns, frequently with inadequate knowledge of the biology of harvested species or consideration of the effects of harvesting on the rest of the ecosystem. As noted by Jamieson and Caddy (1986) “Economic considerations form the bottom line of most management situations…” However, Jamieson (1986) cautions that “most invertebrate fisheries, then, will never warrant or command large investments in data collection, monitoring or research, and may never be supported by data bases and assessments adequate for active management.” In view of this lack of information, experimental fisheries, such as the invertebrate fisheries and the newly established shark fishery (Pynn, 1991), should not be allowed. The shark fishery, especially, should be halted, since a recent report (Manire and Gruber, 1990) has revealed that many shark species in the United States and elsewhere may be headed toward extinction due to overfishing! There are four main problems with experimental fisheries (Dethier et al., 1989):

3. by the time a problem is recognized (through, for example drops in catch/unit effort or in local population size), it may be serious and potentially irreversible, and
4. it is politically difficult to close an established fishery.

The fourth and perhaps most important step is to recognize and respond to the need for increased public awareness and input on matters of coastal zone use and stewardship, in general, and marine protected areas, in particular (Kaza, 1988). There is an urgent need for conservation groups, and other non-governmental organizations, to extend their interests from their traditional terrestrial focus, or specific marine species bias, to the whole marine environment and its biota. Initiatives and groups such as the Vancouver Island Shorelines Workshop (Smiley et al., 1991; sponsored by The Federation of B.C. Naturalists and the Vancouver Island Natural History Clubs), the Marine Life Sanctuaries Society of B.C the National Marine Conservation Forum, the Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society marine protected areas resolution (Ianson and Moore, 1992), and the Westwater Research Centre’s Marine Protected Areas Workshops (Westwater Research Centre, 1992a, 1992b, and 1992c) are to be applauded. The only significant proposal for establishing more marine protected areas that I am aware of is The Valhalla Society’s Endangered Wilderness map (Valhalla Society, 1988 and 1992).

Preservation and conservation of marine biodiversity from an ecosystem perspective should be the primary objectives for coastal zone stewardship. Socio-economic and political considerations are important, but should be secondary to achieving long-term viability of natural systems in the coastal zone.

If we want to keep our marine wilderness and biodiversity intact for future generations, we need to act now.

Acknowledgements

Canadian NSERC Operating Grant 580384 supported this work. Paul Gabrielson, William Jewell College made several helpful suggestions for improving the manuscript. Andy Lamb and the Marine Life Sanctuaries Society of B.C. provided Special information on the invertebrate fisheries. Doug Swanston brought to my attention the Coast the Marine Life Sanctuaries Society archives, which contain much early correspondence on the subject of marine parks (primarily the work of Betty Pratt Johnson). The following individuals from the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks helped with information: Greg Chin, Kerry Joy, Kaaren Lewis, Mike Murta, Roger Norrish. and Hans Roemer. National parks people who were most helpful included: Bill Henwood and Claude Monclor. Larry Golden brought important references on marine invertebrate fisheries and marine environmental quality to my attention. Patricia Clay brought several important references on coastal zone management to my attention. Richard Kyle Paisley, Westwater Research Centre made many helpful suggestions regarding jurisdiction and legislation pertaining to the marine environment. Jim Bohnsack, US National Marine Fisheries Service, provided key literature on the ecological basis for using marine fishery reserves for reef resource management. Bill Ballantine, University of Auckland, Leigh Marine Laboratory provided inspiration and many helpful ideas regarding the establishment of marine protected areas. Denise Bonin suggested several improvements to the paper.

References

Across the Border. A Scientific Meeting on Marine Environmental Conditions in Washington and British Columbia. 1992. Synopses of Presentations (with References and List of Contacts). Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington.

BC Parks. 1989a. Coastal Marine Parks of British Columbia. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. Map.

BC Parks. 1989b. Guide to Ecological Reserves in British Columbia. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C. Map.

BC Parks. 1990a. Preserving Our Living Legacy. Parks Plan 90. Landscapes for B.C. Parks. BC Parks, Planning and Conservation Services, Victoria, B.C.

BC Parks. 1990b. Baeria Rocks, Robson Bight, and Checleset Bay Management Statements. Ecological Reserves Program, Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, Victoria, B.C.

BC Parks and Ministry of Forests. 1992. Towards a Protected Areas Strategy for B.C. BC Parks and Ministry of Forests, Victoria, B.C. Map With text.

Ballantine, B. 199 1 . Marine Reserves for New Zealand. Leigh Marine Laboratory Bulletin No. 25. University of Auckland, Warkworth, New Zealand.

Beatley, T. 1991. Protecting biodiversity in coastal environments: Introduction and overview. Coastal Management 19:1-19.

Bohnsack, J.A. 1992. Reef resource habitat protection: The forgotten factor. In: Stemming the 7Yde of Coastal Fish Habitat Ioss. R.H. Stroud (ed.). Marine Recreational Fisheries V. 14. pp. 117-129.

Bohnsack, J.A., H. Kumpf, E. Hobson, G. Huntsman, K.W. Able and S.V. Ralston. 1989. Report on the concept of marine wilderness. Fisheries 14:22-24.

Brundtland, G.H, (Chairperson). 1987. Our Common Future. The World Commission on Environment and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford, England.

Canada. 1982. The Constitution Act.

Canada and British Columbia. 1988. Memorandum of Agreement between the Government of Canada and the Government of the Province of British Columbia. Government of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Canada and British Columbia. 1992. Johnstone Strait Killer Whale Committee Management Recommendations. BC Parks and Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Victoria, B.C.

Chettleburgh, P. 1985. An Explorer’s Guide: Marine Parks of British Columbia. Special Interest Publications (a Division of Maclean Hunter), Vancouver, B.C.

Coastal Zone Resource Subcommittee. 1977a. 7he Management of Coastal Resources in British Columbia. Vol. 1: ‘State-of-the-Art.’ Prepared for the B.C. Land Resources Steering Committee, Minister of Supply and Services, Vancouver, B.C.

Coastal Zone Resource Subcommittee. 1977b. The Management of Coastal Resources in British Columbia Vol. 2:Review of Selected Information. Prepared for the B.C. Land Resources Steering Committee, Minister of Supply and Services, Vancouver, B.C.

C6t6, R.P. 1989. The Many Dimensions of Marine Environmental Quality. Science Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Day, J.C. and D.B. Gamble. 1990. Coastal zone management in British Columbia: An institutional comparison with Washington, Oregon, and California. Coastal Management 18:115-141.

Deardon, P. 1985. Desolation Sound Marine Park, British Columbia. In: Marine Parks and Conservation. Challenge and Promise. J. Lien and R. Graham (eds.). Vol. 2:1-211. NPPAC Henderson Park Book Series No. 10. National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada, Toronto, Ontario. pp. 155-165.

Deblinger, R.D. and R.E. Jenkings, Jr. 1991. Preserving coastal biodiversity: the private, nonprofit approach. Coastal Management 19:103-112.

Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 1990a. Closure to Protect Abalone Stocks. 1 November news release.

Department of Fisheries and Oceans. 1990b. Lingcod Size Limit Introduced for Anglers. 10 May news release.

Dethier, M.N. 1990. A Marine and Estuarine Habitat Classification System for Washington State. Washington State Department of Natural Resources, Olympia,Washington.

Dethier, M.N., D.O. Duggins and T.F. Mumford, Jr. 1989. Harvesting of non-traditional marine resources in Washington State: trends and concerns. The Northwest Environmental Journal 5:71-87.

Dorcey, A.H.J. 1983. Coastal zone management as a bargaining process. In: Coastal Zone Management in British Columbia. B. Sadler (ed.). Cornett Occasional Papers No. 3, Department of Geography, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C. pp. 73-89.

Dorcey, A.H.J. 1986. Bargaining in the Governance of Pacific Coastal Resources: Research and Reform. Westwater Research Centre, University of British Columbia,Vancouver, B.C.

Dorcey, A.H.J. (ed.). 1991. Water in Sustainable Development. Exploring Our Common Future in the Fraser River Basin. Westwater Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

Earle, S.A. 1991. Sharks, squids, and horseshoe crabs–the significance of marine biodiversity. BinScience 41:506-509.Earthlife Canada Foundation. 1991. Endangered Spaces. Project Synopsis. Earthlife Canada Foundation, Queen Charlotte City, B.C.

Eiswerth, M.E. 1990. Marine Biological Diversity: Report of a Meeting of the Marine Biological Diversity Working Group. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Technical Report 90-13.

Environment Canada. 1986. National Marine Parks Policy. Minister of the Environment, Ottawa, Ontario.

Environment Canada. 1991, Background Information. Management Planning Program. Pacific Rim National Park Reserve. Environment Canada, Parks Service, Ottawa, Ontario.

Findley, R. 1990. Endangered old-growth forests. Will we save our own? National Geographic 178(3):106-136.

Gilpin, M.E. and M.E. SoulŽ. 1986. Minimum viable populations: processes of species extinction. In: Conservation Biology. The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. M.E. SoulŽ (ed.). Sinauer Association, Sunderland, Mass. pp. 19-34.

Graham, R. (ed.). 1990. Marine Ecological Areas in Canada. Perspectives of the Canadian Council on Ecological Areas Task Force on Marine Protected Areas. Occasional Paper No. 9, The Canadian Council on Ecological Areas, Ottawa, Ontario.

Hawkes, M.W. 1990. Benthic marine algal flora (seaweeds) of B.C. Diversity and conservation status. BioLine 9:18-21.

Hawkes, M.W. 1992. Conservation status of marine plants and invertebrates in British Columbia: Are our marine parks and reserves adequate? In: Community Action for Endangered Species. A public symposium on B.C.’s threatened and Endangered Species and their Habitat, 28-29 September 1991. S. Rautio (ed.).

Federation of B.C. Naturalists and Northwest Wildlife Preservation Society, Vancouver, B.C. pp. 87-101.

Hildebrand, L.P. 1989. Canada’s Experience With Coastal Zone Management. Oceans Institute, Halifax, Nova Scotia.

Howes, D and P. Wainwright. 1992. Presentation to DFO Sensitivity Mapping Workshop. Ministry of the Environment, Victoria, B.C.

Ianson, D and D. Moore. 1992. Resolution 16. Marine protected areas. Parks and Wilderness Quarterly 4(4):6-9.

Jamieson, G.S. 1986. A perspective on invertebrate fisheries management—the British Columbia experience. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 92~57-74.

Jamieson, G.S. and J.F. Caddy. 1986. Research advice and its application to management of invertebrate resources: an overview. Canadian Special Publication Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 92:416-424.

Jamieson, G.S. and K. Francis (eds.). 1986. Invertebrate and marine plant fishery resources of British Columbia. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 91, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Ottawa, Ontario.

Kay, B.H. 1989. Pollutants in British Columbia’s Marine Environment. A Status Report. SOE Report No. 89-1. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario.

Kaza. S. 1988. Community involvement in marine protected areas. Oceanus 31:75 – 81.

Langford, R.W., S. Reid, and L. Harding. 1988. Marine environmental quality in Canada: status and issues. The Pacific coast of Canada. In: Proceedings: Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality. P.G. Wells and J. Gratwick (eds.). International Institute for Transportion and Ocean Policy Studies, Halifax, Nova Scotia. pp. 209-228.

Lien, J. 1989. Eau Canada! A new marine-parks system. In: Endangered Spaces. The Future For Canada’s Wilderness. M. Hummel (ed.). Key Porter Books, Toronto,Ontario. pp. 107-119.

Lien, J. and R. Graham (eds.). 1985. Marine Parks and Conservation. Challenge and Promise. Vol. 1: 1-254, Vol. 2:1-211. NPPAC Henderson Park Book Series No. 10. National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada, Toronto, Ontario.

Maclnnis, J. (ed.). 1992. Saving the Oceans. Key Porter Books, Toronto, Ontario.

Manire, C.A. and S.H. Gruber. 1990. Many sharks may be headed toward extinction. Conservation Biology 4: 10-11.

Merilees, B. 1985. The Humpback Whales of Georgia Strait. Waters, Journal of the Vancouver Aquarium 8:1-24.

Morgan, B., J. O’Riordan, R.W. Langford and L. Harding. 1988. Marine environmental quality management in British Columbia. In: Proceedings: Canadian Conference on Marine Environmental Quality. P.G. Wells and J. Gratwick (eds.). International Institute for Transportion and Ocean Policy Studies, Halifax, Nova Scotia. pp. 173-183.

Newmark, W.D. 1987. A land-bridge island perspective on mammalian extinctions in western North American parks. Nature 325:430-432.

Norse, E.A. 1993. Global Marine Biological Diversity. Strategy for Building Conservation Into Decision Making. Island Press: Washington, D.C.

Obee, B. and G. Ellis. 1992. Guardians of the Whales. Vie Quest to Study Whales in the Wild. Whitecap Books, Vancouver, B.C

Olesiuk, P.F. and M.A. Bigg. 1988. Seats and Sea Lions on the British Columbia Coast Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Nanaimo, B.C.

Plan Development Team. 1990. The Potential of Marine Fisheny Reserves for Reef Fish Management in the U.S. Southern Atlantic. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SEFC-261.

Pynn, L. 1991. Shark Bait. Vancouver Sun 19 November 199 1. p. B 1 and B 14.

Ray, C. 1988. Ecological diversity in coastal zones and oceans. In: Biodiversity. E.0. Wilson (ed.). National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 36-50.

Ray, C. 1991. Coastal-zone biodiversity patterns. Bloscience 41:490-498.

Smiley, B., N. Layard, D. Carsen and S. Love (eds.). 1991. Identifying and Protecting Sensitive Shoreline and Adjacent Wetland Habitat on tire East Coast of Vancouver Island. Report of the Vancouver Island East Coast Shoreline and Adjacent Wetlands Workshop. The Federation of B.C. Naturalists, Vancouver, B.C.

Thorne-Miller, B. and J.G. Catena. 1991. 7he Living Ocean. Understanding and Protecting Marine Biodiversity. Island Press, Washington, D.C. and Covelo, California.

Usher, M.B. 1987. Effects of fragmentation on communities and populations: a review with applications to wildlife conservation. In: Nature Conservation: The Role of Remnants of Native Vegetation. D.A. Saunders et al. (eds.). Surrey Beatty and Sons, Norton, N.S.W., Australia. pp. 103-121.

Valhalla Society. 1988. British Columbia’s Endangered Wilderness. A Proposal for all an Adequate System of Totally Protected Lands. Valhalla Society, New Denver, B.C. 1:2,000,000 map with accompanying text.

Valhalla Society. 1992 (2nd revised edition). British Columbia’s Endangered Wilderness. A Comprehensive Proposal for Protection. Valhalla Society, New Denver, B.C. 1:2,000,000 map with accompanying text.

Wells, P.G. and SA Rolston (eds.). 199 1. Health of Our Oceans. A Status Report on Canadian Marine Environmental Quality. Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario and Dartmouth, Nova Scotia.

Westwater Research Centre. 1992a. Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in British Columbia. Options for the Future. Westwater Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

Westwater Research Centre. 1992b. Marine Protected Areas (MPA) in British Columbia. Final Report to the Law Foundation of British Columbia. Westwater Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

Westwater Research Centre. 1992c. Workshop Agenda. Marine Ecological Areas in British Columbia. Westwater Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, B.C.

Youds, K. 1985. Marine parks in British Columbia. In: Marine Parks and Conservation. Challenge and Promise. J. Lien and R. Graham (eds.). Vol. 2:1-211. NPPAC Henderson Park Book Series No. 10. National and Provincial Parks Association of Canada, Toronto, Ontario. pp. 149-156.