Managing Tourism and Recreational Activitiesin Canada’s Marine Protected Areas:
the Pilot Project atRace Rocks, British Columbia ~ Louise V. Murgatroyd ~ 

 

 

Graduate Research Project submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Marine Management

at Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

~ September 1999 ~

© Copyright 1999

by Louise V. Murgatroyd

Marine Affairs Program

The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance a graduate research project entitled Managing Tourism and Recreational Activities in Canada’s Marine Protected Areas: the Pilot Project at Race Rocks, British Columbia, by Louise V. Murgatroyd in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Marine Management.

Supervised by:

Dr. Martin Willison

School for Resource and Environmental Studies

Dalhousie University

Signature

Date Dalhousie University

Date: ??3 September 1999

Author:?Louise V. Murgatroyd

Title: ?Managing Tourism and Recreational Activities in Canada’s Marine Protected Areas: the Pilot Project at Race Rocks, British ColumbiaSchool: :Marine Affairs Program, Faculty of Graduate Studies

Degree: Master of Marine Management Convocation:October

Year:1999

Permission is herewith granted to Dalhousie University to circulate and to have copied for non-commercial purposes, at its discretion, the above title upon the request of individuals or institutions.

Signature of Author

The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the graduate project nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s written permission.

The author attests that permission has been obtained for the use of any copyrighted material appearing in this graduate project (other than brief excerpts requiring only proper acknowledgement in scholarly writing), and that all such use is clearly acknowledged.

Table of ContentsExecutive Summary?*

List of Abbreviations?*

Acknowledgements?*

1. Introduction?*

2. Tourism, Recreation and Marine Protected Areas?*

2.1 Coastal and Marine Tourism?*2.2 Tourism and Marine Protected Areas?*

2.3 Economics, Conservation and Education?*

2.4 Coastal Tourism and Marine Protected Areas in British Columbia?*

2.4.1 Tourism?*

2.4.2 Marine Protected Areas?*

3. The Pilot Marine Protected Area Project at Race Rocks?*

3.1 Geography, Ecosystem and Heritage?*3.2 Race Rocks Ecological Reserve?*

3.3 Tourism and Recreation at Race Rocks?*

3.3.1 Whale Watching/Wildlife Viewing?*

3.3.2 Scuba diving?*

3.3.3 Recreational Fishing?*

3.3.4 Kayaking/Boating?*

3.3.5 Research and Education?*

3.4 Impacts from Recreational Activities?*

3.4.1 Threats to Ecosystem and Wildlife?*

3.4.2 Conflicts?*

3.5 Current Management Regime?*

3.5.1 BC Parks and Pearson College?*

3.5.2 The Light-keepers?*

3.6 Management Issues for Tourism and Recreation at Race Rocks?*

4. Selected Examples of Current MPA Management Practice for Tourism and Recreation?*

4.1 The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park?*4.2 The Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park?*

4.3 The Fathom Five Marine Park?*

4.4 The Bonaire Marine Park?*

5. Managing Tourism and Recreation: Recommendations for Race Rocks?*

5.1 Zoning?*5.2 Mooring Buoys?*

5.3 User Fees?*

5.4 Codes of Conduct/Wildlife Viewing Guidelines?*

5.5 Education and Interpretation?*

5.6 Tour Operator and Staff Training?*

5.7 Permits?*

5.8 Partnerships for Stewardship/Stakeholder and Community Participation?*

5.9 Custodians?*

5.10 Monitoring and Research?*

6. Conclusion?*

7. Appendices?*

7.1 Appendix I: Race Rocks Ecosystem?*7.2 Appendix II: Boat Activity at Race Rocks in 1997?*

7.3 Appendix III: Example of Incident Report Form?*

7.4 Appendix IV: Whale watching guidelines?*

8. References?*

 

 Executive Summary 

Marine tourism is a major component of a massive global tourism industry. Extensive visitation to coastal and marine areas has lead to marine environmental degradation, compromising the very values that make these environments attractive to tourists. Marine protected areas (MPAs) strive to conserve biodiversity and ecological processes, many of which coincide with the above-mentioned values. Tourism and MPAs can have a mutually beneficial relationship: MPAs provide venues for tourism and tourism, through education and awareness-raising, can create support for marine conservation, MPAs and other integrated coastal management strategies.

Race Rocks, a group of tiny islands near Victoria, British Columbia, is one of five national pilot MPA project sites currently being examined by Fisheries and Oceans Canada. The site hosts abundant and diverse wildlife and is heavily visited tourists and recreational users from the greater Victoria area. These include whale watching operators, scuba divers and recreational fishers. While already protected as a provincial ecological reserve, the pilot MPA project will pursue additional strategies involving government, industry and other stakeholders to ensure that negative impacts from mounting visitor use are minimised.

Examples of effective management strategies for tourism and recreation in existing MPAs around the world are provided, such as the Great Barrier Reef and Bonaire Marine Parks. Recommendations are made for the pilot MPA at Race Rocks and include a combination of government and industry regulation, comprehensive education and interpretation programs, and extensive consultation with relevant stakeholders to ensure effective management strategies which encourage compliance among users and require minimal enforcement.

List of AbbreviationsCCGOBS?Canadian Coast Guard Office of Boating Safety

DFO??(Department of) Fisheries and Oceans Canada

EMC??environmental management charge

EPGC??The Economic Planning Group of Canada

ER??ecological reserve

FFNMP?Fathom Five National Marine Park

GBRMP?Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

GBRMPA?Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority

LUCO??Land Use Co-ordination Office

MEF??Ministère de l’Environnement et de la Faune (Québec)

MMRG?Marine Mammal Research Group

MPA??marine protected area

OUC??Ontario Underwater Council

SFAB??Sport Fishing Advisory Board

SSLMP?Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park

AcknowledgementsThe work presented forthwith would not have been possible without the kind assistance and support of a number of individuals and groups. Thanks and gratitude must be expressed to the following: Fisheries and Oceans Canada for providing financial support and an office at its Coast Guard facility in Victoria; to Christine van Horne, for arranging the internship with the department and for providing a roof over my head; to Yvette Myers for putting me in touch with Christine; to Doug Andrie who provided valuable contacts and access to meetings, in addition to expertise on local sushi establishments; and to Marc Pakenham for his unerring enthusiasm and passion for Race Rocks, deux chevaux and great music! Thanks also to the numerous individuals, many of whom are cited in the reference section, who provided their time and invaluable background information during various interviews.

Further thanks go to the staff and students of Pearson College, and the lightkeepers Carol and Mike Slater, who showed me what an extraordinary place of wonder and learning is located at Race Rocks and who continue to care for it. Garry Fletcher and Angus Matthews were extremely helpful in providing unlimited access to an extensive database of information and contacts. Special thanks go to Chris Blondeau who, in addition to becoming a friend, took a shivering tropical diver and immersed her in the chilly waters of the Pacific Ocean in a scuba tank, thus providing an introduction to the phenomenal wealth of marine life at Race Rocks. Without this experience, my understanding and appreciation of the Rocks would have indeed been deficient. Thanks also to Dr. Joe MacInnis, a source of inspiration to all who are concerned about the world’s oceans, for his continued interest and enthusiasm for my progress in the master’s program, and whose deep appreciation for Race Rocks will help to secure its future for the benefit of all Canadians.

Finally, to my family and friends, for whom there are not words sufficient to express . . .

The World below the BrineThe world below the brine,Forests at the bottom of the sea, the branches and leaves,Sea-lettuce, vast lichens, strange flowers and seeds, the thicktangle, openings, and pink turf,Different colors, pale gray and green, purple, white, and gold,the play of light through the water,Dumb swimmers there among the rocks, coral, gluten, grass,rushes, and the aliment of the swimmers,Sluggish existences grazing there suspended, or slowlycrawling close to the bottom,The sperm-whale at the surface blowing air and spray, ordisporting with his flukes,The leaden-eyed shark, the walrus, the turtle, the hairysea-leopard, and the sting-ray,Passions there, wars, pursuits, tribes, sight in thoseocean-depths, breathing that thick-breathing air, as somany do,The change thence to the sight here, and to the subtle airbreathed by beings like us who walk this sphere,The change onward from ours to that of beings who walkother spheres.Walt Witman
1. Introduction
Witman’s words are an appropriate introduction to a research project which examines the management of an industry that relies on the draw of the wonder expressed in the poem. Our enjoyment of the seaside manifests itself in a growing multi-billion dollar global tourism industry that shows no signs of slowing down. We swim, snorkel, dive, sail, paddle, cruise and visit aquariums and maritime museums along the coastlines of the world’s oceans in massive numbers. Indeed, what could be more telling of our curiosity

for a glimpse into the nature of that mysterious realm than the delivery, in 1998, of the first-ever tourists to the grave of the Titanic, buried deep beneath the surface of the sea.

Despite this apparent fascination, the extent of our knowledge and understanding of the seas remains but a drop in the oceanic bucket. And much to our discredit as a species, we pollute, deplete, plunder and generally degrade the marine environment with an ignorance that borders on wilful. Long utilised as a receptacle for waste and considered to be an endless bounty of resources, the health of the oceans is failing due to human abuse. As a result, efforts world-wide now concentrate on more integrated approaches towards managing the marine environment to stem a tide of degradation that could spell ecological disaster for the planet.

To this end, marine protected areas (MPAs) have emerged as an important tool in ocean conservation, and the management of tourism and recreation activities within MPAs has become an important issue for the protection of marine and coastal resources. The reasons for this are two-fold: tourism has great potential as an activity that can have a minimal impact on the marine environment while generating income for the communities at its borders; and, as greater numbers of tourists seek more educational experiences in natural environments, MPAs provide invaluable settings for the dissemination of marine ecological information, creating corps of aware and concerned citizens to support ocean and coastal conservation.

As increasing human demands are placed upon ocean resources by tourism, in addition to other marine sectors, ensuring the compatibility of tourist activities with the protection of an MPA’s resources and environmental quality is critical. Poor planning and management in the past, coupled with tremendous growth in the industry world-wide, has compromised the health of marine environments everywhere. Furthermore, emerging evidence of negative impacts associated with tourism development, often labelled nature-tourism or eco-tourism, has called into question their status as relatively ‘benign’.

In keeping with growing efforts to establish MPAs around the world, Canada has recently embarked on a national initiative to establish MPAs in the in- and off-shore environments along its extensive coastlines. To test strategies that deal with a variety of management issues for the establishment of MPAs, several pilot projects are underway. It is hoped that these pilot MPAs will ultimately receive formal designation under the Oceans Act, setting the example for successive efforts. One such project is the Race Rocks Marine Protected Area located just outside Victoria, British Columbia. Announced in September of 1998, the Race Rocks pilot site provides a venue for the consideration of a number of management issues particularly with respect to tourism and recreation. Of significant cultural, historical and ecological value to the local tourism industry, the site has experienced considerable growth in visitation over the past decade, raising concerns regarding the impacts of this activity on its distinctive marine ecosystem.

The management plan for the Race Rocks Marine Protected Area Pilot Project is in its iterative stages of development and public consultation by relevant government agencies. This research project is intended to provide an overview of the main issues involved with respect to the tourism and recreation portion of this plan, and to highlight some further areas for research. It also brings together some of the tourism management literature as it pertains to MPAs, and offers some recommendations for consideration at Race Rocks. It is hoped that the research project may serve as a starting point for more detailed analysis and further discussion.

2. Tourism, Recreation and Marine Protected Areas 

2.1 Coastal and Marine Tourism

Tourism is one of the largest economic sectors world-wide with marine and coastal tourism comprising a major component of the industry (Anonymous 1995). World Tourism Organization statistics for 1997 record 612 million international tourist arrivals, with expenditures of US $443 billion, and the industry continues to grow (World Tourism Organisation 1998). Coastal and marine tourism includes “any activities, attractions or facilities/services which take place on the ocean or along the coastline or which involve a marine-based theme . . . such as sailing, sea kayaking and whale watching, coastal sightseeing and touring and attractions, parks accommodations, festivals and special events with a marine theme or location” (EPGC 1997, p. i). The popularity of coastal tourism stems from its ability “to provide both terrestrial and aquatic recreational opportunities to tourists during a single trip” (Bailey 1998, p. 31).

Coastal areas are often an important factor in the selection of a tourist destination as evidenced by the mass tourism market that has evolved around the “sun, sea and sand” destinations of coastal tropical nations. However, the popularity of the sea-side vacation is not limited to the tropics: a 1997 study on marine tourism in Nova Scotia found that 88% of tourists surveyed indicated that the seacoast was either critical or important to the selection of Nova Scotia as their holiday destination (EPGC 1997). Unfortunately, intensive visitation to coastal environments has resulted in a host of negative impacts to the environment. Habitat such as mangroves and grasslands has been lost as areas are cleared for development. The construction of resorts and hotels coupled with beach

management efforts has lead to coastal erosion. Inadequate or non-existent sewage treatment facilities in many areas means that human wastes are often discharged directly into the sea both from land and from ships, while anchors from small recreational craft and giant cruise liners damage coral reefs and other benthic organisms. Finally, fishery and invertebrate resources are harvested to depletion to supply the tourist trade in both restaurants and souvenir shops.

2.2 Tourism and Marine Protected Areas

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature provides a widely accepted definition of MPAs as follows: “any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying waters and associated flora, fauna, and historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by legislation to manage and protect part or all of the enclosed environment” (Kelleher & Kenchington 1992). In addition to the protection of marine biodiversity, often from the very threat of damage due to visitation, providing tourism and recreational opportunities has been a major impetus for the of MPAs around the world. Overall objectives for marine parks include the provision of “protection, wise use, understanding and enjoyment” (GBRMPA 1999a) of ecosystems “for the benefit and enjoyment of present and future generations” (Parks Canada and MEF 1995, p. 5). Implicit in these statements is the fact that people will, and indeed should, visit these areas in such a way that the ecosystem remains intact and unharmed for future appreciation. In order to achieve this end, “[a]ctive environmental planning and resource protection programs are essential for effective management to balance park uses with the capabilities of the resource to sustain such use indefinitely” (Marion and Rogers 1994, p. 154).

The values that MPAs are established to protect are coincident with those sought after by tourists. For example, in the case of scuba dive tourism, “[t]he special features and values of [MPAs] – the reasons they were declared in the first place – are also the reasons that such areas attract divers” (Davis and Tisdell 1996, p. 230). For most marine tourism and recreation activities, such values are associated with those aesthetic and amenity qualities which rely on healthy marine ecosystems. These include flora and fauna that are unique, diverse or abundant, good water quality and visibility, unspoiled or pristine landscapes and the absence of over-crowding (Davis and Tisdell 1995).

2.3 Economics, Conservation and Education

Tourism is emerging as a major economic sector of marine industries against a backdrop of dwindling fishery resources in our seas. Its potential to provide a means of supplemental, if not alternative, livelihood for coastal communities is being tapped around the world. Bailey (1998) writes that “communities that rely on tourism as their economic base are in many ways quite similar to communities that are dependent upon logging, fishing, agriculture or any other natural resources system” (p. 31). MPAs, like their terrestrial counterparts, have become venues for various forms of tourism which utilise natural environments and provide economic development opportunities for local communities. Davis and Tisdell (1996) write that “[t]he granting of protected area status may also make these areas better known and easier to promote, again leading to heavier recreational use by groups” (p. 230). In addition to economic benefits to local communities, revenue generated from protected areas can be channelled into maintenance costs and funding for research.

Controlled marine tourism has been characterised as non-extractive and non-degrading and has therefore not been associated with the negative impacts of such extractive industries as commercial fishing or minerals exploitation (Agardy 1993). However, heavy or poorly managed visitation to protected areas, no matter how well-intentioned, can result in loving an area ‘to death’. As Post (1994) writes, “economic benefits have little significance in the context of the aim of national parks and protected areas (the preservation of ecosystems) if these benefits are generated in a way which destroys the ecosystem” (p. 336). Furthermore, “[p]ermitting unlimited and unregulated tourism development and use of protected environments will ultimately erode the very values which contributed to their designation as parks and reserves (Marion and Rogers 1994, p. 154). Therefore, tourism activities in protected areas, and indeed all natural environments, must be conducted in such a way as to uphold conservation principles.

Public education and awareness-building effected through interpretation programs in protected areas are one of the most important aspects of protected area management whenever visitation is permitted. The benefits of education, such as generating support for biodiversity protection and conservation, are accrued not only to the visitor population, but to local communities, tour and associated industry operators, and all other relevant stakeholders.

Since the tourism and recreational activities permitted within MPAs utilise the natural resources protected therein, these activities are generally considered to fall under the category of eco-tourism. Recent eco-tourism literature defines the term largely in keeping with the definition provided by the Ecotourism Society which states that eco-tourism is “responsible travel to natural areas which conserves the environment and sustains the well-being of local people” (1997). The eco-tourism debate rages in the literature with respect to proper definitions and the types of activities which fall into this category, and it is not the intention of this author to enter in to such a debate. However, it must be acknowledged that the eco-tourism label has become subject to over-use in the tourism industry and today connotes almost any activity that involves the natural environment. Taking responsibility for conservation and regard for local communities are central to eco-tourism in addition to active education programs which increase awareness.

Modern tourists have greater experience in international travel than the tourists of the past and are “more likely to seek educational components in their tourism experiences” (Aiello 1998, p. 52). MPAs are well-suited to accommodate this demand and visitation has its benefits, as Ballantine (1995) writes:

We can learn from theory, but it is much easier to learn from direct experience. If some representative marine reserves are created, and people encouraged to visit them, the idea would quickly become more popular and accepted. However, many existing marine protected areas actually prohibit public access. The reasons given include the protection of scientific work, the needs of rare or endangered species, and safety or secrecy (many military areas are effective marine reserves). Only rarely do marine reserves prohibit extractive activities and welcome people to come and appreciate their full natural marine heritage, thus learning about its complex intrinsic properties and the need for caution in exploitation (p. 6).With education as a fundamental objective of MPAs, tourism and conservation can be seen to develop what Agardy (1993) terms a “symbiosis” where the “relationship between tourism and coastal protection is bi-directional; tourism provides incentives for protection, and well-managed protected areas provide incentives for visitation” (p. 226-227).

2.4 Coastal Tourism and Marine Protected Areas in British Columbia

2.4.1 Tourism

Tourism is a growing sector of the BC economy and the second largest export industry after forestry in the province (Tourism British Columbia). In 1998, 21.3 million tourist visits generated $8.7 billion in revenue (Ministry of Small Business Tourism and Culture 1999). The province markets itself as “Super, Natural British Columbia” and promotes tourism products and services which consist primarily of activities involving the outdoors.

In addition to its exceptional value in terms of biological productivity, fishery resources and cultural heritage, the Pacific coast contains “a vast array of recreational opportunities” (DFO and LUCO 1998, p. 9) and is popular for cruising, sailing, kayaking, wildlife viewing, scuba diving and sport fishing. Activity-specific and up-to-date information regarding marine and coastal tourism in BC is difficult to obtain. In 1989, revenues from marine-related tourism were estimated at $222 million with nearly 800 marine-based tour operators in existence (ARA Group 1991). And one recent estimate reports that “one in every three dollars spent on tourism in B.C. goes toward marine or marine-related activities” (DFO and LUCO 1998, p. 8).

Sport fishing is the most popular activity, generating the greatest amount of revenue with the largest number of operators (Price Waterhouse and ARA Consulting Group Inc. 1991). British Columbia is also well recognised internationally as an excellent dive destination offering a variety of diving on historic wrecks, artificial reefs and natural rocky reefs, all of which host diverse and colourful marine life. “In a recent divers survey, British Columbia’s coast was rated as the best overall destination in North America, even when compared to such tropical destinations as the Florida Keys, the Gulf of Mexico and southern California” (DFO and LUCO 1998, p. 9) and the industry was valued at $4 million dollars in 1993 (Eggen 1997). Clearly coastal and marine activities are a significant component of tourism in British Columbia and will be an important consideration within the context of MPAs.

2.4.2 Marine Protected Areas

There are currently 104 marine areas on BC’s coasts that have been afforded some degree of protection (DFO and LUCO 1998). These exist in the form of marine parks, ecological reserves, wildlife management areas and fisheries closures, each with specific conservation and recreation objectives, and are managed by various government agencies (DFO and LUCO 1998). The designation of MPAs in BC has occurred on a sporadic, ad hoc basis, through a variety of federal and provincial legislative instruments (DFO and LUCO 1998). However, since 1994 the provincial and federal governments have been developing a joint strategy for marine protected areas in BC resulting in the 1998 release of a discussion paper entitled Marine Protected Areas: A Strategy for Canada’s Pacific Coast (Barr et al. 1999).

The strategy identifies primary objectives for the establishment of MPAs which include the protection of biodiversity and representative ecosystems, the conservation of fishery resources and habitats, the protection of cultural heritage resources, the provision of opportunities for scientific research and the sharing of traditional knowledge, and the enhancement of education and awareness (DFO and LUCO 1998). Also included is the provision of opportunities for recreation and tourism:

MPAs can support marine and coastal outdoor recreation and tourism, as well as the pursuit of activities of a spiritual or aesthetic nature. The protection of special recreation features, such as boat havens, safe anchorages, beaches and marine travel routes, as well as the provision of activities such as kayaking, SCUBA diving, and marine mammal watching will help to secure the wealth and range of recreational and tourism opportunities available along the coast.

Providing opportunities for tourism and recreation will be an important element of the MPA strategy, in view of the province’s growing outdoor tourism industry and indeed considerable evidence of the strong links between tourism and MPAs from around the world.

3. The Pilot Marine Protected Area Project at Race RocksAgardy (1993) writes that “marine protected areas, encompassing everything from small-scale, traditional marine parks to large biosphere reserves, provide a necessary geographical focal area in which to plan multiple use management and demonstrate its effectiveness” (p. 221). With the passage of the Oceans Act in 1997, Canada has embarked on a strategy for the integrated management of its oceans and coasts, a major component of which is a program for the establishment of a national system of MPAs, under the leadership and facilitation of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO) (DFO and LUCO 1998).

As the initial phase of this program, DFO has selected five pilot MPA projects which represent a ‘learn-by-doing’ approach to MPA selection and designation (DFO and LUCO 1998). Four of the projects are located off the Pacific coast with Race Rocks and Gabriola Passage representing the nearshore environment, while two projects have been established offshore at the Bowie Sea Mount and Endeavour Hydrothermal Sea Vent. The fifth project is located at the Gully off the coast of Nova Scotia. These projects have been designed to test various aspects of MPA implementation including the determination of objectives, opportunities for stakeholder partnerships and co-management arrangements, the establishment of criteria for the evaluation of MPA proposals, and co-ordination between various levels of government and non-government agencies (DFO and LUCO 1998).

The pilot project at Race Rocks, a group of small islets located 17 km from Victoria, off

the southern tip of Vancouver Island (Figure 1), was designated in 1998. Specific elements to be tested there focus on federal-provincial partnership and complementary management plans and strategies, and the application of joint federal and provincial legislation as the area is already protected by the province (DFOa). Stakeholders in the area include DFO, BC Parks, First Nations, tourism operators, research and education interests, recreational fishers and boaters, and the Department of National Defence which owns much of the adjacent coastal land and conducts underwater explosives testing in the area.

 

Figure 1: The location of Race Rocks, approximately 17 km from Victoria, the major departure point for tourists visiting the site (Source: DFOa).Much of the literature on tourism and MPAs focuses on tropical marine environments and reflects the location of the majority of MPAs world-wide. With respect to MPAs in general, “[t]emperate waters such as Canada’s have not been the subject of the same level of conservation efforts and the high levels of public awareness that, for example, the Great Barrier Reef generates” (DFO and LUCO 1998, p. 6). Race Rocks, and the other pilot MPA projects, will help to address this situation, particularly as they are intended to become the first wave of MPAs in Canada’s national system.

3.1 Geography, Ecosystem and Heritage

The nine islets which comprise Race Rocks have a total area above sea-level of less than one hectare. Strong tidal currents “racing” past the rocks at up to seven knots give the site its name. The islets form the peak of a submarine mountain and the substrate is characterised as continuous rock consisting of cliffs, chasms, benches and surge channels (Figure 2) (BC Parks 1998). The area is nestled between the straits of Juan de Fuca and Georgia, in the transition zone between open ocean and coastal waters, and currents supply nutrient-rich waters from Pacific upwellings, the estuarine-fed waters of the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound.

Race Rocks is distinguished for the wide variety and number of marine mammals found there including Northern and California sea lions, harbour, northern fur and elephant seals, river otters, Dall’s and harbour porpoises, orcas and gray whales. Many sea birds also nest on the rocks including pelagic and Brandt’s cormorants, pigeon guillemots, black oystercatchers and glaucous-winged gulls (DFOa). Invertebrate species present include octopi, sea stars, a variety of sponges, corals, sea anemones, giant barnacles, sea grasses, giant kelp and other algae, and hydroids (DFOa; BC Parks 1998). Numerous examples of fish species can also be found including salmon, halibut, Ling cod and wolf eel (DFOa; BC Parks 1998).

 

Figure 2: Hydrographic survey of Race Rocks in two dimensions. The black regions represent land exposed above sea level (Source: Canadian Hydrographic Service via Pearson College 1999). 

 

Great Race Rock is the largest of the islands and is not included in the Ecological Reserve. It houses the second oldest lighthouse tower on Canada’a Pacific coast. The tower was built in 1860 from granite shipped from England as ballast. An important aid to navigation which warns mariners off the dangerous rocks, the station became fully automated in 1997. Two houses remain on the island which accommodate the former lightkeepers, who now act as custodians, and researchers. Since automation, the federal government has been working to restore the land around the lighthouse, previously under lease, to the province. Historically , local First Nations have harvested a number of species at the site though these uses are not well-documented at present (Fletcher 1999). Consultation with these groups with respect to the pilot MPA and the incorporation of traditional knowledge into educational programs has begun, and MPA designation will be further subject to the treaty negotiation process (DFOa; Lavoie 1998; Fletcher 1999; Matthews 1999, pers. comm.).

3.2 Race Rocks Ecological Reserve

One of the unique features of Race Rocks in terms of the pilot project is its status, since 1980, as a provincial ecological reserve (ER). ERs are established in terrestrial and marine environments throughout British Columbia for the protection of areas representative of the province’s ecology, unique habitats and rare or endangered species (BC Parks). They are further intended to provide scientific and educational opportunities and therefore tourism and recreation are not actively promoted within these sites.

The establishment of the ER at Race Rocks was initiated by a proposal put forth to the province by students and staff at the Lester B. Pearson College of the Pacific (Pearson College) who use the site extensively as part of their science curriculum. Chosen for “its unique richness and diversity of marine life,” (BC Parks) the boundaries of the reserve follow the 20 fathom/36.6 metre depth contour (Figure 3) and contain a total area of 220 hectares (BC Parks). Race Rocks has received considerable attention in local and regional print media with respect to the natural features of the area, its status as an ecological reserve and the automation of the light station.

 

Figure 3: Race Rocks Ecological Reserve as found on Canadian Hydrographic Service nautical charts. Soundings are in metres and the black dotted line follows the 36.6 metre depth contour which delineates the boundary of the reserve (Source: Canadian Hydrographic Service 1999).ERs are legally established through the BC Ecological Reserves Act and administered by BC Parks. Regulations include the prohibition of anchoring and the requirement for a permit for any commercial and research activities (Kissinger 1999, pers. comm.; Pearson College 1999b). ERs are also subject to the BC Park Act which explicitly states the requirement for permits for anyone acting or offering services as a guide. The act defines a guide as “a person who, for compensation or reward received or promised, accompanies, assists or provides a service to another person” (Park Act 1990, Section 2.1). However, due to lack of resources, the administration of this regulation at Race Rocks has not been a priority action for the ministry (Biffard 1999, pers. comm.). The Race Rocks ER is further protected by full DFO closures to all commercial and recreational fisheries except for sport fishing of salmon and halibut.

3.3 Tourism and Recreation at Race Rocks

 

Race Rocks is a popular area for whale watching operators, scuba divers, recreational fishers, boaters and kayakers. Data indicating current levels of these uses at the site are largely unavailable. Rather, general information exists in the form of overall trends for visitation to the province and southern Vancouver Island, and certain water-based tourism activities in which visitors engage. In 1998, over 5.5 million visitors travelled to Victoria generating roughly $7.5 billion in revenue (Tourism British Columbia 1998). Of those who visited from outside the province, 16% participated in marine-based activities such as whale watching and boating (Tourism British Columbia 1998).

Tourism Victoria has recently begun breaking down its exit surveys of participant activities into segments and includes a “Water Based Recreation” Category. In its visitor reporting for 1998, 19.7% of parties visiting Victoria had at least one member who participated in either boating fishing or whale watching (Tourism Victoria 1999). Furthermore, whale watching and water-based recreation (i.e. boating, sailing, canoeing, kayaking and swimming) placed high in the top ten list of activities which respondents would like do on a return trip (Tourism Victoria 1999). Data such as this help to provide an overall indication of the popularity and potential for growth of certain activities but is insufficient for the needs of planning and management for the pilot MPA.

Data describing numbers of vessels operating in and around Race Rocks is also difficult to obtain. The municipality of Victoria grants licenses to tour companies operating vessels which use dock facilities in its harbour. However, vessels are classified as ‘sightseeing’ and consist of whale watching, dinner cruises, sailing charters and other activities such that whale watching/wildlife viewing is not specifically indicated. Furthermore, tour companies operate from a number of local harbours which lie in other municipalities, therefore this is not a reliable source of information. Private and commercial vessel registry is administered by either Transport Canada or Canada Customs, depending on the tonnage of the vessel, and no central database exists with respect to the commercial activities of these vessels.

The following sections will outline general use and industry profiles and levels and, for the reasons stated above, is not intended to serve as a comprehensive investigation.

3.3.1 Whale Watching/Wildlife Viewing

Wildlife viewing is by far the most prevalent tourism activity at Race Rocks. Trip sales in Victoria’s whale watching industry grew from 1400 in 1987 to 8000 in 1997 with the number of vessels increasing from five boats in 1993 to 40 in 1998 (Obee 1998). The 1998 Victoria Visitor Report recorded that 9% of non-resident visitors participated in whale watching during that year. Upon entering the visitor information centre in Victoria, the visitor is confronted with a large wall display of pamphlets promoting the activity in the greater Victoria area. The author collected 21 pamphlets advertising both dedicated whale watching operators and those offering a number of marine tourism activities of which whale watching was one.

While whales are indeed sited in the area, the majority of whale watching activities do not take place at Race Rocks itself and very few companies offer dedicated wildlife viewing tours of Race Rocks. Rather, the site is used frequently as a stop-over en route to or from whale sightings further west in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, or as an alternative, “Plan B”, site in the absence of whales (Figure 4) (Fletcher 1999). Bruce Obee, a popular BC travel writer, writes that while killer whales provide a primary attraction in the industry, “an evolving fraternity of marine-mammal aficionados is arriving, like birders, with lifelong species lists. They’re looking specifically for grey whales and humpbacks, Dall’s and harbour porpoises, Pacific and white-sided dolphins, harbour seals, California and Steller’s sea lions” (1998, p. 8). The majority of vessels are rigid-hull inflatables with a capacity of twelve passengers and two crew and are capable of high speeds in order to reach the whales. These are generally crewed by a captain and an on-board naturalist who provides whale and wildlife interpretation. Some companies combine these roles in one crew member.

 

Figure 4: Race Rocks is often included on the itinerary of whale watching vessels en route to or from, or in the absence of, a whale sighting. On board naturalists provide interpretation of wildlife in the reserve which includes seals, sea lions, eagles and a variety sea birds (Source: Author 1999). 

The majority of Victoria’s whale watching operators are members of the Whale Watching Operators Association Northwest (WWOANW), an industry-generated organisation consisting of approximately 30 operators from Canada and the US. It was created in response to the growth of the industry in the Puget sound area and the need for communication and co-operation between operators, in addition to concerns over the welfare of the whales (Bennett 1999). In keeping with a growing trend among whale watching operators around the world, and the absence of formal regulation, the organisation has developed its own guidelines for the operation of vessels around marine mammals and birds. The WWOANW also contributes funds to various whale research organisations such as The Whale Museum at Friday Harbour in Washington’s San Juan Islands.

WWOANW members assist in the Museum’s Soundwatch program which seeks to foster stewardship and public awareness and to minimise the impacts of recreational and commercial vessels in the region (Kukat 1999, pers. comm.; Rhodes 1999, pers. comm.; The Whale Museum 1999). Curiously, very few of the Victoria-based operators advertise their membership with WWOANW, their adherence to the whale watching guidelines or contributions to whale research. Whatever the reason for this, heightening awareness of this type of participation would serve to better educate the consumer in the selection of subsequent operators in the future.

3.3.2 Scuba diving

Look into thought and say what dost thou see;Dive, be not fearful how dark the waves flow;Sing through the surge, and bring pearls up to me;Deeper, ay, deeper; the fairest lie low.Charlotte Brontë, from Diving 

 

Data for diver usage at Race Rocks are also vague. In 1995, roughly 1300 divers were recorded in the guest book kept on the dock at Great Race Rock (Grant 1996). However, as many divers do not land on the island, this is not an accurate

measure. The site is offered as a regular weekend destination by one Victoria dive shop, the Ogden Point Dive Centre, which takes an estimated 500 divers per year (Bradley 1999, pers.comm.). Other dive operators in the Victoria and Sydney areas run dive charters to the site on demand by groups throughout the year A number of provincial dive societies also make use of the site, in addition to private users.

 

 

Figure 5: Race Rocks offers spectacular diving as experienced by the author on two successive dives. Unfortunately, the wolf eel pictured above eluded the author on both occasions. Conditions at the site require advance training and close attention to tide tables as divers can be easily caught in strong currents (Source: Pearson College 1998).Due to the presence of strong currents, diving at Race Rocks requires advanced dive experience and mobile surface support from vessels, although some vessels make use of the dock at Great Race Rock from which divers can enter the water. The brochure for the ER makes the following recommendations with respect to the conduct of diving at the site:

The best time to dive at Race Rocks is on a slack tide that changes to a flood. It is best to avoid strong ebb tides, especially when diving from the rocks. Fly a dive flag from the docks and please inform the station-keeper, but remember that he is not responsible for your safety while in the reserve. Divers especially should have adequate boat cover if they are diving on the reserve, as strong currents can easily make it impossible to return to shore (BC Parks). 

International collision regulations require that vessels engaged in diving fly a recognised dive flag (Figure 5) when divers are present in the water (CCGOBS 1999). Other vessels are advised to move at slow speeds and to remain “well clear” (CCGOBS 1999, p. 66) of these vessels. Furthermore, there is no national regulatory body for recreational scuba diving or the commercial operators that provide it.

 

Figure 6: One of two internationally recognised dive flags (international Code Flag “A” is on the right) must be flown from vessels engaged in diving. 

 

Recreational diver training in Canada is relatively standardised throughout a number of private certification agencies. Divers are taught proper buoyancy skills to avoid injuring aquatic life and are generally encouraged by agencies and operators not to harass nor take organisms while underwater. The Race Rocks ER brochure makes further recommendations to divers in the reserve to minimise impacts to the environment:

Underwater divers should take care to weight themselves properly and maintain proper trim in the water so that their fins are not always kicking the organisms they are passing over. It is also important to refrain from grabbing at kelp in order to control themselves in current, as masses of life can be torn away from the bottom (BC Parks, no date). 

Individuals diving with commercial operators are generally given briefings in which appropriate behaviour is encouraged and monitored (Bradley 1999, pers. comm.). However, for other individuals, compliance is purely voluntary.

3.3.3 Recreational Fishing

Sport fishing is a very popular activity throughout the province with revenues estimated at over $7 billion for 1999 (Price Waterhouse and The ARA Consulting Group Inc. 1996). The Victoria Visitor Report to the British Columbia Visitor Study reports that 6% of non-resident visitors to Victoria engaged in salt water fishing (Tourism British Columbia). In a 1995 national sport fishery survey, approximately 200 000 angler days per year were recorded for the Victoria area, generating between $30 and $50 million dollars in associated expenditures (Gjernes 1999, pers. comm.).

Race Rocks has been characterised as an extremely popular fishing ground for local residents due both to its accessibility from Victoria and local marinas, and the natural features which make it conducive to catching fish (Gjernes 1999, pers. comm.; Kukat 1999, pers. comm.). Sport fishers take an active role in the conservation and allocation of resources, consulting on a regular basis with government through local branches of the province-wide Sport Fishing Advisory Board (SFAB). While recreational fishing of salmon and halibut remains open at Race Rocks, there are concerns over the issue of accidental, or by-catch, of other species within the reserve, particularly of rockfish which are the target of federal conservation efforts in the region. Anchoring by fishing boats is also a concern (Hawkes 1994; Slater 1999, pers. comm.).

The closest marina to Race Rocks, located at Pedder Bay, rents small charter boats which are mainly used for recreational fishing, and sells sport fishing licenses on site. Renters are given charts with the Race Rocks ecological reserve clearly outlined by a bold red line and are instructed to remain out of the reserve altogether. This is in order to avoid damage to boats from tides and currents around the rocks (Dickinson 1999, pers.comm.). Nonetheless these vessels are often observed in the reserve (Slater 1999).

3.3.4 Kayaking/Boating

Sea kayaking is becoming a popular activity in British Columbia and there are several outfitters in Victoria and southern Vancouver Island. Kayakers do make use of Race Rocks though the strong currents make it a site for experienced paddlers. One local kayaking tour operator describes kayak use in the area as minimal (Party 1999). A 1996 consultant’s report on alternative uses of automated lightstations identified Race Rocks as being particularly accessible and having good potential for sea kayaking tours and suggested that the facilities had potential for use as a bed and breakfast (Cornerstone Planning Group 1996).

Determining use levels by private boaters in MPAs is a particularly difficult, as has been found in other MPAs around the world (see Valentine et al. 1997). The lightkeepers have been recording observations of boats within the reserve since 1997 (see Appendix II) and these logs may begin to provide an indication of the level of use by this group.

3.3.5 Research and Education

Research and education are a primary objective for the establishment of ERs under the Ecological Reserve Act and were a key factor in the designation of Race Rocks. With its high concentration and diversity of wildlife and easy access, Race Rocks has been the subject of extensive research on hydroids, transient whales, abalone and nesting sea birds, in addition to a host of projects by students at Pearson College including tidepool monitoring and the installation of permanent transect pegs (Fletcher 1999). Much of this information is presented and updated on the Race Rocks website which is maintained by Pearson College.

As already mentioned, Pearson College students make use of the site extensively for field research in the Biology and Environmental Systems courses offered at the college. However, Pearson also runs a public outreach program aimed at local schoolchildren who are given a tour of the facilities at the site and an introduction to its intertidal and subtidal marine life (Fletcher 1999). Two salt water tanks are maintained on Great Race Rock containing a sampling of underwater life to be found in the reserve.

In 1992, a series of interactive educational television programs called the “Canadian Underwater Safari” was broadcast live via satellite from Race Rocks. During the programs, students from around the world were able to communicate with divers while watching live underwater video of the reserve. The College hopes to make further use of internet technology in the creation of a virtual education centre by setting up permanent cameras, both above and below water, which would offer live video feeds of Race Rocks. Partnerships are being developed with BC Tel and the BC Museum in addition to industries wishing to showcase environmentally-friendly technology such as alternative energy production by wind (Fletcher 1999, pers. comm.).

3.4 Impacts from Recreational Activities

3.4.1 Threats to Ecosystem and Wildlife

The location of Race Rocks makes it susceptible to a number of potentially harmful impacts including the danger of oil spills from high volumes of international shipping traffic in the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and disturbances from explosives testing at the nearby DND facility. Visitor numbers are high for such a small area and with the wide range and increase in activity of tourism and recreational activities concerns are mounting over the impact of these activities on the wildlife. With respect to whale watching, there is a considerable body of literature on the impact of this activity on whales and research in the Pacific and elsewhere is on-going. In a study presented to the whale watching workshop at the Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park (SSLMP) in May of 1998, it was shown that

whales exposed to boats changed their behaviour during deep dives, described as feeding dives. This change in the diving behaviour of the fin whales could reduce the time spent capturing their prey. This study clearly indicates the necessity to reduce and control the number of vessels present at a given time on the observation sites (Gilbert 1998, p. 14). 

However, while whales are indeed sited at Race Rocks, the primary activity of commercial whale-watching vessels in the ecological reserve is the viewing of wildlife and it is the impact of this activity that will be examined here.

Discussions with the former lighthouse keepers Mike and Carol Slater indicate that a decrease in whale sightings and changes in the behaviour of other marine mammals within the reserve has occurred in the area over the past ten years. While, the couple attribute these changes largely to the increased presence of commercial vessels in the reserve, this is an area of some debate among other users. The couple have observed numerous occasions where both commercial and recreational boaters have accidentally and intentionally harassed wildlife having, upon occasion, forced seals and sea lions to “stampede” from the rocks (Slater 1999, pers. comm.).

Managing the behaviour of recreational boaters is also an issue as highlighted by a recent article describing a whale watching encounter aboard a commercial vessel. The whale watching operators present were

conspicuously abiding by the commercial whale-watchers’ guidelines, idling along 100 metres to the seaward side of the whales. If any orcas surface next to a boat, that’s good luck, but no professional operator is likely to chase these animals.?Two private speedboats, however, are recklessly zigzagging in the orcas’ path, rushing over them as they come up to breathe.

The education of recreational boaters presents a particular challenge in the management of the reserve as there is no centralised means of providing appropriate information to these users. The presence and activities of the lightkeepers, who disseminate ER brochures and provide information to these boaters remains the most effective means of informing this group.

Sea kayaks, while generally considered to be benign due to the absence of loud engines, may also disturb wildlife. Kayakers may approach wildlife more closely than motorised vessels and their movements may be mistaken for those of predators (Obee 1998). At certain times of the year the rocks provide important breeding and nesting sites which adds a seasonal element to the susceptibility of wildlife to human activities. For instance, young seal pups are not accustomed to the presence of boats which can result in injury. Vessels have been observed to pass through the ER at high speeds and Pearson college reported the deaths of three baby seals during the summer of 1998 which were attributed to collisions with vessel propellers (Pearson College 1999).

The destruction of coral reefs from tourism and other activities has received considerable attention around the world. For instance, anchor use by dive boats provides the greatest source of damage to coral reefs associated with scuba diving (Harriott et al. 1997; and see van Breda and Gjerde 1992). Damage is caused by dragging anchors and the scraping of heavy anchor chains along the bottom as boats swing back and forth. In temperate waters however, awareness of the marine life that may be compromised is not as prevalent. At Race Rocks, anchor use also poses a threat to the “lush variety of invertebrate life including plumose anemones, starfish, nudibranchs, bryozoans, and sponges, for which the waters of British Columbia are known” and thus anchoring is prohibited in the reserve (Battley 1998).

 

3.4.2 Conflicts

With increasing levels of visitation to Race Rocks there exists greater potential for conflict between users of the site. In the past two years, two incidents have occurred involving scuba divers and whale watching operators. In each case, scuba divers were unable to surface due to the presence of whale watching vessels. The most recent incident sparked a legal case which is presently before the provincial courts (Bradley 1999, pers. comm.). If divers are prevented from surfacing, serious injury may result from running out of air or being run over by a boat’s propeller. And while dive vessels are required to fly a special dive flag the adequacy of the size of such flags to warn off approaching boats from a sufficient distance may also be an issue.

In the absence of a national body to regulate either of these industries, both rely heavily on the safe practice and awareness of operators, and on good communication. This is an area requiring significant attention as the safety of individuals visiting a federally protected area must be of paramount importance. Furthermore, while operators of vessels in these industries are generally prepared for the presence of each other, the question remains as to the level of awareness of the private boater or renter who may not be familiar with other users of the area.

At present, recreational boaters are not required to meet competency standards for the operation of their vessels. New standards are currently being implemented by the Canadian Coast Guard which require mandatory certification of private vessel operators through an accredited boating safety course, and that proof of such competency be carried on board. However, the completion of all phases of implementation will not occur until 2009 (CCCOBS 1999).

3.5 Current Management Regime

 

3.5.1 BC Parks and Pearson College

As an ER, the management responsibility for Race Rocks lies with the province and is administered through a program of voluntary wardens. Since the establishment of Race Rocks, this role has been performed by the staff and students of Pearson College. Commercial activities are subject to permits administered by Pearson College on behalf of BC Parks. Permit applications are available on the Pearson College website and are issued for research and filming activities (Pearson 1999b). Commercial tourism activities have thus far not been subject to the permitting process. Therefore these activities are almost purely self-regulated within the reserve.

Despite its designation in 1980, the management plan for the reserve has not been forthcoming. In 1998, a draft management plan was produced by Pearson College and BC Parks, and forms the basis for the management plan for the pilot MPA project currently under review. While tourism and recreation are not actively promoted in ERs, it is obvious that changing use patterns since the designation of the ER must be reflected in the management of the pilot MPA, such that protective measures are aimed against the impacts of such uses (Willison 1999, pers. comm.).

3.5.2 The Light-keepers

 Poetry cunningly gildsThe life of the Light-keeper,Held on high in the blacknessIn the burning kernel of night:The seaman sees and blesses him;The Poet, deep in a sonnet,Numbers his inky fingersFitly to praise him;Only we behold him,Sitting, patient and stolid,Martyr to a salary. 

 

 

Since the automation of the Race Rocks light station in 1997, the lighthouse keepers Mike and Carol Slater, have been employed as custodians of Race Rocks by Pearson College. The couple serves an important role both in terms of observing and documenting reserve use, reporting infractions of reserve regulations, guarding against poachers of abalone and other benthic species, and educating visitors (Slater 1999, pers. comm.; Hewett 1996). In addition, the keepers provide weather reports to local marinas, take daily temperature and salinity measurements which have been collected since the early half of the century, and assist in local rescue operations (Hewett 1996; Slater 1999, pers. comm.). Whenever possible, the couple greets boaters who violate reserve regulations with the Race Rocks brochure and provide information about the reserve. Whether the Slaters will continue to serve this important function at Race Rocks remains uncertain as Pearson College relies on private fund-raising for their salaries.

3.6 Management Issues for Tourism and Recreation at Race Rocks

The primary issue for the management of tourism and recreation at Race Rocks is the lack of data on visitor use and its impacts on the ecosystem. With respect to use, information is unspecific and scattered throughout a variety of sources, consisting largely in the form of general trends for the larger Victoria area. The importance of such research needs has been well recognised in MPAs around the world for which such data is also lacking and is a growing area of research (see Valentine et al. 1997 and Crossland and Alock 1999). For Race Rocks, the situation presents a major research need for the future of the MPA to ensure informed decision-making with respect to management and planning and this has been recognised in the draft management plan. Furthermore, consideration will need to be given to determining possible use thresholds or carrying capacity (see Dixon et al 1993).

While the gaps in research are substantial, the precautionary principle currently being applied to much of ocean resource management dictates that decisions must be made based on the best available data. Its absence should not be used as rationale to delay decision-making or the implementation of precautionary measures. This principle further places the onus on the resource user to provide sufficient proof that a particular activity will have a minimal impact on the environment.

A second crucial issue for consideration at Race Rocks is that of partnerships and stakeholder participation. Federal and provincial co-operation are a significant element of the pilot project and as tourism and recreation interests play such a major role in the use of the reserve, the participation and support of these groups will be essential to controlling activities and minimising impacts, in addition to ensuring that other objectives for the site, i.e. conservation and education, are upheld. While it is unrealistic to think that all stakeholders will be completely satisfied if an MPA and its associated regulations are implemented at Race Rocks, their meaningful input into the management and planning stages will be important in securing a viable management regime for Race Rocks. Furthermore, as a pilot project, the success of partnerships displayed here will provide valuable lessons for future MPA establishment.

A third important issue for tourism at Race Rocks is ensuring that education and interpretation programs are effective and are reaching their intended audience. As stated earlier, private recreational boaters are the most challenging targets and those most in need of information. Commercial activities at Race must continue to promote environmental education first and foremost as part of the services they provide and should include information specific to the Race Rocks ecosystem and its status as an Ecological Reserve and potential MPA. Additional issues for consideration are contained in the draft management plan, stating the overarching objective with respect to visitor use and potential actions to be taken to achieve it. These are presented in Figure 4.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Race Rocks Ecological Reserve Draft Management Plan– June 1998Management Objectives and Actions: Visitor Use

Ecological reserves are established to support research and educational activities. Visitation to the waters surrounding Race Rocks Ecological Reserve has been increasing, particularly those engaged in wild life viewing and diving. Uncontrolled, uninformed and excessive use could result in: behavioral changes or injury to marine mammals and seabirds; poaching of sealife; or physical injury or mortality from handling or improper dive techniques. Given the proximity of the ecological reserve to Victoria and the interest in these types of activities, commercial and recreation use will continue to grow.

Given the role of ecological reserves, uses that occur at Race Rocks should contribute to education or research objectives without negatively impacting the natural values. This may include commercial tours.

Objective:

To permit educational opportunities that have minimal impact to the ecological reserve and increase public awareness, understanding and appreciation for Race Rocks Ecological Reserve and its values.

Actions:

• Subject to an impact assessment, only issue permits for commercial activities that are educational or research oriented
• Work with the volunteer warden, Lester B. Pearson College, to provide annual orientation session for commercial operators and tour guides.
• Continue to provide public information to increase awareness of the ecological reserve, the potential of ecological impact of various activities, and the need for caution in the ecological reserve. This would include: brochure; accurate information in BC Sports Fishing Regulations; information at points of entry; mapping on marine charts and navigational guides; internet/web site.
• Work with commercial operators and researchers to develop a code of conduct within the ecological reserve to ensure protection of the natural values and to maintain a high quality educational experience. Develop a monitoring system with Lester B. Pearson College, site guardian, researchers and commercial tour operators to ensure appropriate behavior of diving and wild life viewing companies and other visitors.
• Develop an outreach program and stewards program to assist with the management, and to develop respect for the ecological reserve and its values.
• Discourage anchoring in the ecological reserve.
• As per the Ecological Reserve Regulations ensure that commercial operators in the ecological reserve have permits for their activities.

 

Figure 4: Management objectives and actions with respect to visitor use in the current draft management plan for the Race Rocks Ecological Reserve.

4. Selected Examples of Current MPA Management Practice for Tourism and Recreation 

The following section provides a brief description of various MPA management plans and regimes which may offer some guidance for the pilot MPA at Race Rocks.

4.1 The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park

As one of the earliest, and indeed the largest MPAs in the world, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) provides useful insight all aspects of MPA management, particularly with respect to multiple use, and is frequently described in MPA literature. The growth of tourism provided much of the impetus for the creation of the MPA and tourism remains the main commercial use of the park (Kenchington 1991; Alcock and Crossland 1999; GBRMPA). The GBRMP is managed by a distinct legal entity, the GBRMP Authority (GBRMPA), in addition to the Queensland Department of Environment. The primary objective of the GBRMPA is “to provide for the protection, wise use, understanding and enjoyment of the Great Barrier Reef in perpetuity through the care and development of Great Barrier Reef Marine Park” (GBRMPA 1999a). Zoning in the park affords various levels of protection from ‘general use’, in which all reasonable activities consistent with conservation are permitted, to ‘strict preservation’ in which areas are left in their natural state and free from human activity (Kenchington 1991).

Environmental issues are the key consideration for tourism development and a permit system allows new proposals to be reviewed on an individual basis, the imposition of

conditions of practice and environmental monitoring, and the collection of data on commercial tourism use (Kenchington 1991; Craik 1994; Valentine et al. 1997).

This information is compiled into a central database which includes the following fields: company name, location of activity, nature and frequency of activity, maximum number of people, permit type, type of transport, vessel name, passenger capacity, size and registration (Valentine et al. 1997).

In 1993, the GBRMPA implemented an environmental management charge (EMC) to offset rising costs of park management and reef research. Originallly set at $1 per person participating in tourism activities in the park, the EMC has been raised to $4 and is applied to commercial operators only. 25% of the revenue contributes to management activities and the remaining 75% funds research through the CRC Reef Research Centre (Alcock and Crossland 1999). The centre is a joint venture between the tourism industry and the relevant management and research agencies and conducts research on all aspects of the Great Barrier Reef, including tourism (Alcock and Crossland 1999).

Management approaches to tourism include strategic policy and planning, direct management, industry self-regulation, active partnerships and adaptive management (GBRMPA; Alcock and Crossland 1999). As Alcock and Crossland (1999) write,

[e]nhanced public awareness over the last two decades of the unique and special qualities of the Great Barrier Reef is apparent in the wider community and in the boardrooms and actions of the Reef industry users. “Education not regulation” has been a deliberate approach by GBRMPA and other day-to-day management agencies. Putting aside this awareness and any sense of altruism, it makes sound commercial sense for the tourism (and other) industry, with investments of millions of dollars in expenditure, to ensure the sustainable nature of the Great Barrier Reef environment on which each enterprise depends (p. 7). 

Formal consultation with the industry is effected through the Association of Marine Park Tourism Operators. The GBRMPA and the marine tourism industry have developed the Great Barrier Reef Staff Certificate course to train industry staff members in reef interpretation, in addition to an “Eye on the Reef” program in which tour operators assist in ecological monitoring by recording marine life observations at the sites they frequent (Aiello 1998; GBRMPA 1999b).

 

4.2 The Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park

Established in 1997, the Saguenay-St. Lawrence Marine Park (SSLMP) encompasses estuarine ecosystems of the Saguenay and St. Lawrence Rivers and is the result of a joint federal-provincial partnership in the establishment of an MPA. The park experiences a variety of extractive and non-extractive uses and receives large numbers of visitors. Second only to conservation, the main objective of the park is, “[i]n co-operation with community partners, [to] teach visitors to recognize, understand and appreciate the many aspects of the Marine Park, so that they can comprehend the reason for the park, the intrinsic value of its components and the need for conserving them” (Parks Canada and MEF 1995, p. 28).

The management plan for the park identifies activities that it does not consider to involve resource harvesting including boat excursions to observe marine mammals, pleasure boating and scuba diving. The plan recognises that

[t]hese recreational activities have various kinds of impacts on ecosystems and resources. The reputation of these regions as tourist destinations, as well as the announcement of the new Marine Park, have stimulated development of many of these activities; some have become highly significant to local economies.

 

Priority actions for the park include developing appropriate management procedures and a regulatory framework for these activities, particularly for boat tours and scuba diving, in addition to further study of the impacts of recreational activities on the marine environment (Parks Canada and MEF 1995).

As at Race Rocks, whale watching and wildlife viewing are significant activities within the park. At a regional workshop on whale watching held in 1998, the issue of permits for whale watching operators was examined in light of the desire from the Marine park to develop a policy of mandatory permits for commercial tours. The policy would seek to implement a moratorium on the number of authorised wildlife-viewing vessels, ensure resource protection and passenger safety, and apply violator sanctions (Gilbert and SSLMP 1998). Proposed conditions for permits include limiting the number of vessels authorised for individual companies, the requirement of additional navigation equipment to that already required by Transport Canada, and the zoning of whale watching activities (Gilbert and SSLMP 1998). Additional conditions could include the meeting of competency standards for boat captains including certifications in Transport Canada accredited navigation, marine emergencies, use of navigation equipment, first aid and training in industry codes of conduct (Gilbert and SSLMP 1998).

4.3 The Fathom Five Marine Park

While the Fathom Five National Marine Park (FFNMP) exists in the freshwater environment of Ontario’s Georgian Bay, its management plan focuses largely on the tourism and recreation activities which comprise the major use of the park. These include scuba diving, cruising, sailing, wreck touring and recreational fishing (Parks Canada 1998). Parks Canada is the government agency charged with the management of Fathom Five. With extensive experience in the protection and conservation of biodiversity and the management of visitors in terrestrial areas, the agency is currently embarking on the establishment a system of National Marine Conservation Areas (NMCAs). This system would complement the national MPA strategy and associated legislation currently awaits parliamentary approval.

At FFNMP,

 

Parks Canada encourages public understanding, appreciation, and enjoyment of marine heritage through opportunities to experience Fathom Five National Marine Park in ways that are appropriate to its natural values. A satisfying, high quality experience is not the ultimate objective, however. Parks Canada recognizes that attitudes towards environmental issues range along a continuum from awareness, understanding, and valuing to taking action. By providing satisfying experiences of Fathom Five, Parks Canada hopes that visitors will come to understand and value their environment, and will be inspired to take action themselves for its protection.

Interpretation and education are central to public appreciation at the park and information is presented in the format of relevant themes which encompass the ecosystem, history and culture, environmental awareness and departmental messages (Parks Canada 1998). Appropriate and inappropriate activities for the park have been identified with the latter being prohibited within its boundaries.

To take the example of management strategies for one activity, scuba diving, a mandatory diver registration program has been established with the assistance of the Ontario Underwater Council (OUC) and is carried out by OUC volunteers. The program, geared towards ensuring the safety of divers at Fathom Five, highlights the importance of co-operation and participation from stakeholder groups. Furthermore, policies have been implemented to address conflicts between divers and other user groups (Parks Canada 1998). The 1998 management plan provides guidelines for the implementation of user fees to be collected in exchange for certain Park services that are in the private rather than the public interest, for example the use of campsites versus resource protection; the consideration of capacity for key visitor sites; and the use of business licenses to manage commercial operations (Parks Canada 1998).

4.4 The Bonaire Marine Park

The island of Bonaire forms part of the Dutch Caribbean in the lesser Antilles. The island’s waters, extending to the 60 metre depth contour, have been legally protected as a Marine Park since 1979. Divers provide the majority of visitation to the island (Dixon et al. 1993; De Meyer 1997). The management of the MPA clearly demonstrates the potential for the successful employment of a number of management tools and it is one of the first MPAs in the world to become entirely self-financing (De Meyer 1997). Procedures are relatively simple, but effective:

Divers pay [an] admission fee as part of their standard check-in procedure. Fees are collected and passed on to the Marine Park in their entirety, with no hidden overhead or administrative costs. Having paid their admission fees, divers are keen to receive information on the marine Park, including its rules and regulations and activities. They are given interpretive information and are required to attend a verbal orientation. Finally, they are obliged to carry out an orientation dive in front of the resort before they are allowed to dive elsewhere in the Marine Park. Research has shown that efforts to educate divers and thereby minimize their impact on the reefs have been very successful. Furthermore, the divers are quick to report any infringements of park regulations (1997). 

The user fees contribute further to the maintenance of the park’s mooring system, the provision of shore markers, and the maintenance of park facilities and equipment, in addition to funding a children’s outreach program, law enforcement activities and several research and monitoring projects (De Meyer 1997). While scuba diving is the main form of tourism, the strategies used to manage it should be considered for other marine activities.

5. Managing Tourism and Recreation: Recommendations for Race RocksThe following section provides a discussion of some of the tools and strategies which should be considered in the management of an MPA at Race Rocks.

5.1 Zoning

Zoning is a popular tool in protected area management and is particularly effective in large areas such as the GBRMP in which multiple-uses are. In view of the small size of the area proposed for MPA designation at Race Rocks, and the similarity between the nature of activities engaged in by its users, zoning to separate activities for the area may not be practical or necessary. While some potential for conflict between tour operators has been demonstrated, the activities at Race Rocks generally require similar management approaches which would be more easily administered within a single zone.

The potential for conflict does exist between tourism and recreation and the research and educational uses of the site. Furthermore, there is considerable support for the establishment of ‘no-take’ zone in which all harvesting would be prohibited. This would be particularly appropriate in light of suggestions to expand the current boundary of the reserve to form the MPA. In this way, an outer or buffer zone could be created in which multiple-uses could take place, including current sport fishing activities (Kukat 1999, pers.comm; Fletcher 1999). Furthermore, Great Race Rock could be zoned to permit landing only at certain times of the year, to ensure maximum protection during critical seabird nesting times.

Currently, a feasibility study is underway by Parks Canada for the establishment of a much larger NMCA in the Georgia Basin region. An MPA of such size would be more on a par with the GBRMP in which zoning would be necessary for various uses, and it is thus conceivable that Race Rocks might then become a zone of higher protection within this larger area.

5.2 Mooring Buoys

The installation of mooring buoys has had considerable success in tropical reef environments where damage from anchoring is widespread. In British Columbia’s coastal waters, the Underwater Council of British Columbia has established a program of mooring ball installation to mitigate similar impacts (Battley 1998). The majority of diving at Race Rocks however is drift diving which, as mentioned previously, requires mobile surface support from vessels. Furthermore, the dock at Great Race offers limited moorage. Boats anchoring in the reserve appear to be private recreational vessels whose operators are either unaware of, or deliberately contravene, no-anchoring regulations. This group should be targeted for further efforts at education and awareness-raising.

5.3 User Fees

Craik (1994) writes that user pays policies are “based on the philosophy that people who benefit from the use of a public good or property, especially for commercial purposes, should contribute to the cost of managing or protecting that property” (p. 344). The implementation of a user fee at Race Rocks has been suggested for commercial operations at Race Rocks:

it is the responsibility of [DFO] to implement a way to have commercial users of the resource contribute to it’s [sic] upkeep. In particular, an immediate plan to implement a nominal user fee for commercial operations involving marine mammal watching. The funds from commercial operations involving marine mammal watching. The funds from this revenue could help to offset the cost of keeping people employed to be manager-guardians of the island. The example of one dollar per seat charge at Tofino was given. Money collected by the charter boats helps in the ongoing research in the area.

 

The EMC discussed in the section on Australia’s GBRMP is indicative of how this fee can be utilised further to assist in the collection of important data on visitor use and commercial activities. As in the Australian example, the problem remains as to how to implement such a fee for private recreational users. While interviews with tour operators indicated support for nominal fees, concerns were raised regarding the dedication of funds for use at Race Rocks and not ‘general revenue.’ Guarantees would have to be put in place and the use of a non-government entity such as Pearson College, to administer the funds, should be considered.

 

5.4 Codes of Conduct/Wildlife Viewing Guidelines

General guidelines for the conduct of all commercial tourism activities will need to be incorporated into the management of the pilot MPA. This should include wildlife interaction protocols, in addition to interactions between operators from different sectors, e.g. whale watchers and divers, in order to avoid potential conflict. As previously indicated, the WWOANW has developed a comprehensive set of guidelines for its members. The guidelines cover behaviour around whales, pinnipeds, birds, porpoises and other whale watching vessels. Of further significance is the final section of the guidelines which deals with research and education. Members are advised to “support local whale research by providing written records of sighting information to bona fide research groups and through association approved financial support of selected research activity” (WWOANW 1999).

These guidelines have not been widely available until recently and are now available on the internet. Industry adherence to the guidelines should be better promoted by individual operators and a modified version created for distribution to clientele considered. Furthermore, companies should promote their participation in local research and conservation efforts. Increasing awareness of these activities will promote further support for research and conservation and will allow for more informed decision-making on the part of the public in the selection of responsible tour operators.

Concomitant with industry guidelines should be the development of government guidelines, particularly for dissemination to the recreational boating public. In its Laurentian region, the DFO has already published such information in its leaflet, There are limits TO OBSERVE! The leaflet contains information on federal marine mammal regulations, a code of ethics, rules of conduct, information on how to approach whales and how to report disturbance incidents in the region (DFOb). This type of information would be highly appropriate and useful for recreational boaters in the Pacific region.

While individual dive and kayak operators generally brief clients on ecological considerations in their respective activities, codes of conduct could also be developed for these users to ensure proper standards for behaviour. For instance, Victoria kayak operator Ocean River Sports provides training in conservation ethics for its staff and promotes environmentally-friendly practices among its clientele (Party 1999, pers. comm.). Dive operators provide briefings on appropriate behaviour but again this could be standardised for the industry through more formal codes of conduct for behaviour within an MPA.

5.5 Education and Interpretation

The provision of opportunities for education is a central function of MPAs and is a desirable and highly effective strategy against negative impacts from tourism. Education programs also reduce the need for, and cost of, formal means of enforcement (Causey 1995). Commercial tourism activities at Race Rocks are, on the whole, oriented at providing an educational experience and this must remain their primary objective. Tour operators must be encouraged to include information specific to the natural history of Race Rocks and its ecosystem when taking clients there (Willison 1999, pers. comm.). Furthermore, information regarding its protected status as an ecological reserve and pilot MPA should be provided to generate recognition and support for such initiatives. There is a need for consistency in this respect and it would be appropriate for industry, in partnership with other agencies such as local universities and museums, to develop a minimum standard of information to be included in interpretation, to ensure that correct and relevant information is being provided.

Education and interpretation are particularly important for private recreational users who are considerably more difficult to target. Broader efforts aimed at educating the recreational boating public on general conduct and appropriate behaviour in coastal waters, including ERs and MPAs would seem to be a realistic approach. To this end, the distribution of the booklet Protecting BC’s Aquatic Environment: A Boater’s Guide, a joint publication by DFO, Environment Canada and BC’s Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks should continue. The booklet covers a number of aspects of environmentally responsible boating, including respect for marine wildlife. The British Columbia Tidal Waters Sport Fishing Guide contains information on the location and regulations of MPAs, species conservation efforts and whale watching guidelines and is also an important contribution to awareness-raising.

Despite new Coast Guard regulations requiring private boaters to enrol in an accredited operator proficiency course, the curriculum for this course contains no elements of marine environmental education or respect for wildlife (Hadlley 1999, pers. comm.). However, individual institutions offering this course are free to provide additional material and opportunities for this could be explored for local course providers. Excluding the lightkeepers, there is little at Race Rocks to indicate its status as a protected area, other than a sign at the dock on Great Race Rock, nor the type of behaviour that should be observed while there. The posting of more signs should be considered in addition to the continued distribution of information pamphlets at nearby marinas and access points.

Considerable infrastructure for public information and outreach already exists for Race Rocks. Pearson College maintains a comprehensive website and hosts a number of local school children at Race Rocks for education programs each year. Opportunities for expanding this program should be considered to include a wider range of students and other community groups with additional support from DFO and BC Parks. As mentioned previously, Pearson College is also seeking partnerships for the creation of a virtual Race Rocks education centre using internet and satellite technologies. While this initiative has considerable educational potential, it may also serve to heighten interest for visitation to the site, thus increasing the need for the firm establishment of measures to control such visitation.

5.6 Tour Operator and Staff Training

Aiello (1998) writes that “[w]ell informed staff with good communication skills are an essential component of successful tour operations in any setting” (p. 60). Furthermore, quality interpretation provides a competitive advantage and therefore economic incentive to operators in a high volume market such as the one at Victoria (Aiello 1998). In a study of an Australian reef tour company conducted by Aiello, customer feedback with respect to staff interpretation found that clients “enjoyed being able to ask any staff member questions about the environment, not just the few designated Naturalists” and that this indicated a “high level of professionalism” (Aiello 1998, p. 58). Furthermore, the study found that the teaching of interpretation skills was equally as important as biological and ecological content (Aiello 1998). Aiello concluded that while not all tour operator staff need to be experts in marine biology, highly professional marine tourist operations are maintained through all boat staff receiving “enough biological and interpretive training to be confident in sharing a sense of wonder, beauty and knowledge of the GBR with all customers, giving them a memorable ‘take home message’ (Aiello 1998, p. 60).

The present author had occasion to provide impromptu interpretation at Race Rocks aboard a whale watching vessel on a private charter (i.e. the vessel was not actively engaged in a commercial whale watching/wildlife viewing tour at the time). I was asked to provide information about the site as the naturalist present was new and unfamiliar with the area. Unfortunately, as I have no training in natural history, I was only able to impart details concerning the protected status of the ecological reserve and the pilot project. However, it was encouraging to find that passengers were extremely curious and enthusiastic for information regarding the local wildlife, particularly when they believed there to be someone present in possession of such knowledge. The experience reinforced the demand for, and importance of, the provision of quality interpretation, in addition to the need for naturalist training in local ecology and wildlife.

Currently there is one course available to tour operation staff in the whale watching industry in Victoria. This is run by the Marine Mammal Research Group (MMRG) in Victoria and consists of an eight week basic naturalist course supplemented by a lecture series which is updated every year. The course is run each spring and the material focuses on whales but also includes local ecology and conservation of marine species, in addition to techniques for interpretation and the fostering of a stewardship ethic among public audiences (Bates 1999, pers. comm.; The Whale Museum 1999). Topics in the lecture series change each year and present up-to-date information and research on various species. These are often attended by naturalists who have already taken the basic course.

The course is virtually mandatory among whale watching staff and companies will often pay for the training for new employees. Similarly, those with the training are more likely to find employment in the industry (Bates 1999, pers. comm.). The MMRG receives some funding from the WWOANW but relies entirely on the dedication and continued interest of the MMRG’s sole co-ordinator, Ron Bates. Means should be explored to secure the future availability of the program in addition to the possibility of licensing of the course to other groups, such as the WWOANW, in partnership with government and other relevant agencies. Staff from other tourist operations could also be encouraged to take the course.

5.7 Permits

While the requirement for permits for commercial activities in ecological reserves is already legislated in the BC Parks Act, its administration is all but non-existent for the commercial tourism industry. The rigorous application of a permit system could serve a number of important functions including the control of entry into an already highly competitive tourism market, the collection of data on visitor use, the collection of a nominal fee to assist in its administration, the assurance of industry-wide acknowledgement of regulations, and the application of requirements for minimum standards of operation in terms of behaviour and educational content. Such a system could also require environmental impact assessments for new activities and allow new proposals to be considered on a case by case basis.

5.8 Partnerships for Stewardship/Stakeholder and Community Participation

Wells and White (1995) write that “[w]here people are dependent on their adjacent marine resources for their livelihoods, the establishment of an MPA is likely to have a significant impact on their lives and, inevitably, results in a reaction from the community. The challenge to managers of MPAs is to channel this response into support for the project” (p. 63). One of the most important features of the pilot MPA project at Race Rocks, and indeed of MPAs around the world, is the cultivation of partnerships and the provision of opportunities for stakeholder consultation and input, in order to achieve this support. Indeed, the success of the proposed MPA at Race Rocks will hinge upon how effectively partnerships are established and upon open channels of communication between management and stakeholders.

Partnerships and stakeholder input generate support for MPAs, opportunities for research and education and go a long way towards ensuring that mutually-agreed upon regulations will be adhered to. This reduces the need for formal enforcement which is a major issue for MPA management. Marion and Rogers (1994) write that managers

should enlist the support of tourism providers in cooperative efforts to identify and resolve the impacts resulting from visitor use. For tourism providers, time and money expended in such educational efforts can enhance customer satisfaction and may prevent restrictive regulations or limitations on access to park resources (p. 161).In British Columbia, tourism interests have been little represented in regional land-use planning (Williams et al. 1998). The importance of this growing sector of the BC economy dictates that its interests must be acknowledged in planning issues. This is not to say, however, that its growth need not be subject to strict controls, indeed it has been demonstrated that such controls are necessary. At Race Rocks, established and well-organised bodies such as the SFAB and the WWOANW facilitate the means of communication with user groups and their active participation will be essential to the MPA process and management.

During interviews conducted by the author with members of these organisations, a degree of uncertainty and unfamiliarity with the plans for the pilot project at Race Rocks was evident. Many individuals were not supportive of further government regulation. There was a perception that such regulation employed a ‘top-down’ approach, an approach frequently associated with MPA establishment. Furthermore, scepticism was expressed with respect to the effectiveness of the consultation process. These perceptions, in addition to the general lack of response that has greeted the Pacific MPA strategy discussion document discussed earlier, indicate that it might be advisable for the relevant government agencies to re-examine their means of obtaining stakeholder input. Furthermore, as the management plan for Race Rocks is subjected to the public consultative phases scheduled for the remainder of 1999, it will be very important that all parties are absolutely clear about the proposal at Race Rocks, and how they will be able to contribute to the process in a meaningful manner. This will help to shift perceptions of MPAs away from ‘top-down’ impositions and towards participatory measures.

With little experience in the management of the activities discussed in this paper, DFO will do well to solicit the assistance of its partners, such as BC Parks and tour operators, who possess considerably more experience in visitor management.

5.9 Custodians

Park rangers and wardens are desirable mechanisms for enforcement and education in any protected area however scarcity of resources is always an issue. Maintaining a permanent presence at Race Rocks has many advantages in terms of public education, ecosystem protection, especially during sensitive breeding times, and deterrence of illegal activities such as poaching. The Pacific lighthouse automation and destaffing has complicated the issue of maintaining the presence of custodians at Race Rocks. However, given that there are many unique features about the Race Rocks pilot area, including its relatively small area and high level of use, the continued employment of the lightkeepers is not only highly desirable, but may be an ecological necessity for maintaining the health of the area. Furthermore, the potential for assistance with research, particularly with respect to visitor use, provides a strong argument in support of the continued employment of the custodians.

5.10 Monitoring and Research

No MPA management plan is complete without monitoring and research objectives and provisions for their execution. With extensive monitoring and research projects, past and present, already undertaken by Pearson College and the custodians, there is further potential to involve marine tourism users of Race Rocks in ecological monitoring both above the water and below. Discussions with local dive operators suggest that there exists the potential to develop a volunteer diver constituency interested in carrying out research initiatives. For example, the US-based REEF program has designed surveys for the identification and inventory or fish species which can be carried out by volunteer divers all over the world, with minimal training. REEF Projects in BC’s waters have already begun (Haggarty 1999). Furthermore, the DFO has established the “Reefkeepers” program which currently monitors artificial reef balls in Sydney. This program could be adapted to monitor the rocky reefs at Race Rocks.

Since 1997, Mike and Carol Slater have been keeping log books to record various observations including significant wildlife activity and boating activity in the reserve and its effects on wildlife. A table compiling the data collected for 1997 is presented in Appendix II and gives a clearer indication of the types of activities which occur at the reserve. Furthermore, standardising the format for recording of observations would also be useful, particularly as the Slaters are often relieved by other individuals who should also be capable of recording such information. An example of a standard form which could be used to record boating activity, for instance, may be found in Appendix III.

Pearson College has conducted extensive research and monitoring at Race Rocks for the past 20 years. Recently, an ecological overview was completed by the College which resulted in a library of print and video materials, in addition to a comprehensive data base available on CD-Rom. However, studies are needed which look specifically at impacts from tourism and begin to examine critical thresholds or carrying capacities for use. Pearson maintains and regularly updates a comprehensive Race Rocks website. The college should remain the central location for the storage of data and, if feasible, include visitor use monitoring in its activities. While the college seeks funding from private sources, additional funding options should be sought from government and relevant agencies to support on-going research efforts.

6. Conclusion 

 

Oceans and coastal areas are many things to many people. To commercial and artisanal fishermen and their customers they are a seemingly limitless breadbasket for the taking. For anglers, yachtsmen, surfers, swimmers, etc. they represent boundless opportunities for recreation. To energy and shipping technologies the seas represent an invaluable industrial resource. For some, the shoreline and oceans have some unquantifiable yet important spiritual value. Additionally, the oceans and coastal margins play a vital role in maintaining the biosphere itself. Thus, the value of the coastal zone is more than the sum of its calculable parts.

 

 

While Agardy has published extensive academic works on marine conservation, I have used her words to introduce the conclusion of this paper because she has, like the poets included in this text, captured the multiplicity and complexity of humans’ relationship with the sea. For it is surely this which makes the management of our oceans such a daunting and multi-faceted challenge.

Determining how to control the way in which humans enjoy the marine environment is not an easy task. The are a number of compelling arguments vying to shape the behaviours by which all should abide, ranging from the preservation of species to the economics of human need. The oceans are teaching us that the way we use their resources must be viewed and controlled in a holistic, ecosystemic and integrated fashion, a lesson that has been slow in coming. Examples of these approaches from around the world show us that there is less to distinguish us from the natural environment than we, as a species, have come to believe. And despite the destructive

practices of our past and present, we are making progress.

Economics and development, so important to our self-determinism, need not exist at odds with the natural environment. The setting aside of ‘plots’ of marine environment for protection and the control of the human industry allowed therein are moving us in the direction of mutually beneficial arrangements. It must be recognised that ecosystems have intrinsic value by sole virtue of their existence, far above and beyond the economic value of exploitation for commercial gain, and must be preserved accordingly. Following this line of thinking, it stands to reason that natural areas should be put aside in which no humans are permitted; that parcels of land and sea must be set aside as safeguards for the future. Conversely, there is the economic reality that people need to make a living. Thus a balance must be achieved.

The relationship between tourism and MPAs may provide such a balance. Marine tourism has become a significant use of ocean and coastal space and resources and protected areas in these environments provide a strong attraction for visitors. Education must remain a central function of visitation and all interests relevant to the establishment and use of MPAs must be actively engaged in their management and operations. The advantages of these are many and include increased public awareness, greater opportunities for research, less need for enforcement and the establishment of open channels of communication so that individuals and groups do not become disenfranchised from the areas that are of importance to them. The author has attempted to provide details of the various issues of concern with respect to tourism and management at Race Rocks. With its high level of visitation and its pending status as part of the first wave of a uniquely Canadian system of MPAs, this pilot project has the potential to showcase the compatibility of tourism and recreation in sensitive marine environments.

To deprive people entirely of direct experiences with wildlife and the natural environment would be a tragic and extreme measure. Such experiences have the potential to educate the already global citizen in becoming the global environmental citizen. And while internet technologies bring a host of experiences from around the world onto the screens of household and classroom computers everywhere, they are simply no substitute for the real thing. After conducting internet research on Race Rocks from thousands of miles away on Canada’s east coast, the author, an avid scuba diver, was totally unprepared for the sense of awe and wonder experienced upon donning scuba gear and plunging into cold Pacific waters to drift along racing currents; upon being suddenly confronted by endless bursts of unanticipated colour and form, previously considered to reside exclusively in the domain of tropical reefs; at being approached underwater by a black, menacing shadow only to discover the curiosity of a sea lion who, unimpressed by what it saw, darted off just as quickly as it came; at seeing, hearing (and smelling!) such a creature and its comrades, sunning themselves noisily on the jagged surface of the rocks; and upon witnessing the sleek black dorsal fin of a transient orca piercing the ocean’s surface, just off the shore. Such experiences must be preserved, along with all this implies for conservation, education and management, for the future welfare of our seas, and of our selves.

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

 

 

 

7. Appendices7.1 Appendix I: Race Rocks Ecosystem

Natural features of the Race Rocks Ecological Reserve as described in the Background Document, Appendix 1 to the Race Rocks Ecological Reserve Draft Management Plan, 1998.

Physical Features

The ecological reserve is almost entirely subtidal, but includes nine islets, comprising less than 1 ha in total. Intertidal and subtidal zones have substrates primarily of continuous rock and a rugged topography which includes cliffs, chasms, benches and surge channels. The location at the southern tip of Vancouver Island, plus the rugged shallow sea bottom, result in strong currents, eddies and turbulence.

Geology

The geology of Race Rocks is volcanic in origin, with the islets being offshore basalts. Granite and quartz intrusive, probably of the undeformed kind, are evident. Sediment basins can be found in subtidal areas.

Oceanography

The important oceanographic features which have a bearing on biodiversity are tides, currents, wave action, water temperature and turbidity.

Tidal currents are a major oceanographic feature of Juan de Fuca Strait. The ebb and flood tides and residual current have a major influence on the water structure. In addition, Race Rocks is a transition zone between the inner waters and the open ocean. For ebb tide that funnels water from the low-salinity, nutrient-rich waters of coastal rivers such as the Fraser and countless tidal marshes along the Strait of Georgia and Puget Sound through the narrow part of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The flood tides, that bring in water from the nutrient-rich upwellings of the open Pacific Ocean. As tidal flow surges past the rugged topography of Race Rocks results in ‘racing’ current, eddies and turbulence. Currents flow with velocities of two to seven knots and change direction according to tide, wave and wind direction. The wave action is more pronounced at Race Rocks due to the exposure to the outer portion of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The variability in undersea topography results in waves being reflected, diffracted and refracted in irregular patterns, resulting eddies and complex tides.

The water temperature is generally greater than 7C with no distinct thermocline occurring. Mean surface temperatures are 7C to 8C in January, rising to 10C to 11C in August and September. In summer, the water is slightly cooler during flood than during

the ebb tidal phase. Tidal flushing and turbulent currents reduce vertical layering of water masses. Surface salinity values average 31/00 through the years and are characteristic of the waters in the Strait of Juan de Fuca.

Water clarity is seasonally dependent, being largely determined by the phytoplankton content of the water. In the winter, low phytoplankton populations result in good underwater visibility (sometimes greater than 15 metres) except after storms. In the summer , underwater visibility lowers with increasing phytoplankton. There is no significant turbidity due to freshwater run off.

Race Rocks is subjected to strong wave action during southeasterly and southwesterly gales which are characteristic of fall and winter. A prolonged westerly storm may produce swells 3 to 4.6 m high with 1 to 3.24 m high wind waves superimposed. Southwesterly gales produce smaller swells (2.5 to 3.7 m high) because of the limited fetch available across the Strait of Juan de Fuca. During calm periods between gales and the summer, a surge is produced by the low westerly swells (1 – 1.2 m) that are present through most of the year.

Climate

Race Rocks is in the rainshadow of the Olympic Mountains and the end of the wind funnel of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Often, the ecological reserve experiences weather patterns quite different than southern Vancouver Island. It has an unusually high amount of sunshine the winter months, very seldom recording freezing temperatures. In summer, there is the occasional blanketing of fog.

The winds in Juan de Fuca Strait blow principally from the southeast and northwest. Outward blowing winds occur 50% of the time during the winter (October through March) while the inward blowing winds predominate during the summer (April through September).

Biotic Features

The rich variety and abundance of seashore life of the Pacific coast is due to the nutrient-rich waters, relatively uniform seasonal range of temperature and freedom from winter icing. Excellent light penetration results in the shallow clear waters teeming with plankton. Combined with the varied topography, the ecological reserve has exceptional variety and productivity of marine life and tremendous ecological diversity. Intertidal, shallow water, deep water and rocky substrate ecosystems support encrusting animals and plants capable of withstanding high velocity currents. In the lee of the island, quiet water flora and fauna are extremely abundant.

The marine communities here are unusually luxuriant and rich. The “coelenterate” fauna is perhaps the richest in the world and benthic fauna is abundant and diverse. Species such as Pink Coral, Gersemia rubiformis, and Basket Seastar, Gorgonocephalus eucnemis, that are usually found at much greater depths are found here at several metres. In addition, there is an unusual abundance of ubiquitous species such as Coralline Algae, Corallina sp., and Brooding Anemone, Epiactis prolifera.

Given the nutrients, some organisms grow to a large size. For example, Giant Barnacle, Balanus nubilus, reaches sizes in excess of four inches and the Thatched Barnacle, Semibalanus cariosus, achieves a prickly texture. The occurrence of disjunct echinoderm species such as the seastar Ceramaster articus, numerous specimens of the Cup Coral, Balanophyllia elegans, the Northern Abalone, Haliotis kamtschatkana, and the Butterfly or Umbrella Crab, Cryptolithoides sp., contribute to the unusual character of the subtidal communities.

The ecological reserve contains an abundance of plumose and brooding anemones, Epiactis prolifera, and large numbers of sponges and ascidians. At least 65 species of hydroids, giant barnacles, a variety of colonial tunicates, three species of sea urchins, sea cucumbers, and basket stars adorn the underwater cliffs. Bright pink hydrocoral, soft pink coral, bryozoans and long-lived species of mussels are found here. Other molluscs

include chitons, limpets, snails, scallops, and pacific octopus. The rare spiral white snail, Opalia sp., occurs in one limited area. The ecological reserve protects thriving populations of intertidal species that have been severely impacted by sports and commercial harvesting elsewhere. These include three species of sea urchins, goose-neck barnacles and the mussel, Mytilus californianus.

Twenty-two species of algae have been recorded, including extensive stands of Bull Kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana,. In the intertidal zone, over 15 species of red, brown and green algae exhibit striking algal zonation patterns, distinctive to the Pacific coast. Several species of red algae, Halosaccion glandiforme, Endocladia muricata and Porphyra sp., occupy relatively high levels on the intertidal shoreline. Porphyra sp. are particularly abundant in the early spring at higher intertidal levels. Microscopic flagellated euglenoids, Pyramonas, live in the high rock pools, giving them a bright green color. The rock walls of tide pools and the shallow subtidal areas are encrusted with the Encrusting Pink Algae, Lithothamnion sp., and large populations of coralline algae. Dead Man’s Fingers, Codium fragile, rare to this area, is found in two small isolated areas of the intertidal zone on the main island. Over 20 species live subtidally and a dense canopy of bull kelp rings all the islands and extends underwater to 12 metres.

The Surfgrass, Phyllospadix scouleri, is abundant in a narrow band near zero tide level and in the deeper tidepools on the western side of the main island.

Marine Mammals

Over fifteen hundred California Sea Lions, Zalophus californianus, and Steller or Northern Sea Lion, Eumetopias jubatus, haul out on the islets south of Great Race Rocks between months of September and May. In the spring, they tend to move out the area and head north to breed on the Scott and Queen Charlotte Islands. In recent years, 35 to 70 Northern lions and up to 800 California sea lions have used Race Rocks as a winter haul-out.

Several hundred Harbour Seals, Phoca vitulian, inhabit Southwest and North Race Rocks year round, bearing their young in June. Six to eight Northern Elephant Seals, Mirouaga angustirostris, have started to frequent the reserve. Up to 60 transient and resident Killer Whales, Orcinus orca, frequent the waters foraging on the sea lions and seals. A family of River Otters, Lontra canadensis, has also been living in the ecological reserve. Other marine mammals that are occasionally observed in the waters of the ecological reserve are Northern Fur Seal, Callorhinus ursinus, Dall’s Porpoises, Phocoenoides dalli, Gray Whales, Eschrichtius robustus, and False Killer Whales, Pseudorca crassidens.

Sea Birds

Race Rocks serves as a nesting colony and a migration resting area. Glaucous-winged Gulls, Larus glaucescens, and Pelagic Cormorants, Phalacrocorax pelagicus, are the most abundant nesting birds in the summer months. Approximately 235 pairs of cormorants nest on the cliffs of Great Race Rock and on the southern outer island. One hundred and eighty pairs of gulls nest in the high spray zone around the perimeter of the main

island and on the small outer islands. Eighty pairs of Pigeon Guillemots, Cepphus columba, nest in rock crevasses on the central island and up to 10 pairs of Black Oyster Catchers, Haemotopus bachmani, nest on the islands. Bald Eagles, Haliaeetus leucocephalus, frequent the area, with groups of 50 birds being sighted on the rocks in winter months. Harlequin Ducks, Histrionicus histrionicus, Surfbird, Aphriza virgata, Rock Sandpipers, Calidris ptilocnemis, and Black Turnstons, Arenaria melanocephala, can be observed occasionally, particularly in the winter. Brandt’s Cormorants, Phalacrocorax penicillatus, and Glaucous-winged Gulls, Larus glaucescens, are the most abundant birds in the fall and winter. Common Murres, Uria aalge, Tufted Puffins, Fratercula cirrhata, Rhinoceros Auklets, Cerochinca monocerata, Ancient Murrelets, Synthliboramphus antiquus, and Marbled Murrelets, Brachyramphus marmoratus,are occasional visitors. Lester B. Pearson College staff reported counting thirteen brown pelicans also on Race Rocks.

The islets of Race Rocks function as suitable alternate habitat for various sea birds that have been forced out of other areas due to environmental disturbances. For example, in the fall of 1974, unusually severe weather conditions off the Queen Charlotte Islands forced the ancient murrelet to frequent Race Rocks.

 

Fish

Decorated Warbonnets, Chirolophis decoratus, Red Irish Lords, Hemilepidotus, sculpin, Kelp Greenling, Hexagrammos decagrammus, Ling Cod, Ophiodon elongatus, China Rockfish, Sebastes nebulosus, Tiger or Black Banded Rockfish, Sebastes nigrocinctus, and Copper Rockfish, Sebastes caurinus, swim in ecological reserve waters. Wolf Eels, (Anarhichthyes ocellatus, also inhabit the rock cervices. Salmon species pass through the area including: Pink Salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha; Chum Salmon, O. keta; Sockeye Salmon, O. nerka; Coho Salmon, O. Kisutch; Chinook Salmon, O. tshawytscha.

7.2 Appendix II: Boat Activity at Race Rocks in 1997

 

7.3 Appendix III: Example of Incident Report Form

 

 

Race Rocks Ecological Reserve – Marine Protected Area: Incident Report Form

 

 

Date: ??????Time:

Wind and water conditions:

 

Name of vessel(s): ????Registration of Vessel(s):

 

 

Other vessels present at time of incident:

 

 

General description of incident (e.g. fishing closed species, harassment of wildlife, feeding, approach too close, etc.):

 

 

 

Species affected by incident:

 

 

Behaviour observed:

 

 

Duration of incident:

 

 

Action taken (boat sent out, radio contact, relevant authority contacted):

 

 

Response (of vessel and/or relevant authority):

 

7.4 Appendix IV: Whale watching guidelines

 

Whale Watching Operators Association NW Guidelines
June, 1999Preamble

The whale watching and marine wildlife tour industry has recently experienced tremendous growth. A significant increase in the number of vessels engaged in wildlife viewing and the uninformed conduct of new operators have resulted in some negative press, negative public opinion and tensions between vessel operators on the water. The Whale Watching Operators Association NW has agreed upon the following guidelines for the conduct of commercial vessels around marine wildlife in order to safeguard the animals that we are out there to observe, ameliorate some of the difficulties associated with the industry’s growth and assure the public that we can act responsibly as an industry association to self-regulate. These guidelines should be reviewed by returning vessel operators and studied by operators new to the whale watching and wildlife viewing industry.

Operation of vessels around whales

• Member companies shall ensure that their vessel operators are thoroughly familiar with the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act and the Canadian Federal Fisheries Act. Member companies shall ensure that their vessel operators comply with the above legislation as well as the current WWOANW whale watching guidelines.
• Member vessels shall approach an area of known whale activity with extreme care. Vessels should slow down and approach cautiously from at least _ mile from the whales (or from whale watching vessels if whales cannot be seen from a _ mile position). Vessel operators should take time to survey the layout of vessels and distribution of whales as they approach.

When approaching a whale or a group of whales:

a) From ahead: STOP and allow the whales to travel toward you b) From behind: Move to the outside of the nearest group of whales or boats and head in a direction parallel to the direction the whales are traveling. c) From the side: Slowly maneuver until heading in a direction parallel to the direction the whales are travelling.

• Member vessels should endeavor to stay to the outside of the group of whales they are watching. At all times
• Vessels should travel in a direction parallel to the direction the whales are travelling. · Vessels speed should be the same as the whale’s speed or slower.

Member vessels shall avoid:

• Making high speed runs through the middle of a group of whales or boats. · Cutting across the direction of travel of the whales. · Taking a position between the whales and shore when the whales are within _ mile of shore. · Approaching whales that are obviously foraging. · Approaching resting whales closer than 100 yards/meters. When whales are resting, no vessel should approach from ahead and/or stop in front of the group. Member companies will ensure that their vessel operators can recognize resting behavior.
• When leaving a group of whales, vessels should travel slowly until they are at least _ mile away from all whales and whale watching vessels.
• It is not uncommon for a number of vessels to arrive in an area where there is whale activity simultaneously. Member companies shall work together to limit the number of vessels with the whales by watching them in rotation and positioning themselves accordingly.
• Newly arrived vessels should wait on the outskirts and if possible, locate a group of whales that are not already with vessels. · Vessels in more favorable positions should limit their time in that position to 15 minutes. · When multiple vessels are watching a single group of whales, they should all be positioned on the same side of the whales, travelling in a line (bow-to-stern) or spread out behind the whales. There should not be a line of vessels on both sides of the whales. · Vessels should limit the amount of time spent with whales on days when there are a large number of vessels with the animals. On these occasions vessels should spend some of their whale watching trip observing other marine wildlife (birds, porpoises, seals, etc.) in other locations.
• Member vessels shall respect the perspective of any shore-based whale watcher, especially those at Limekiln State Park and on the West Side of San Juan Island between Kellet Bluff and Eagle Point. This should be done by maintaining a position seaward of the whales and not venturing close to shore. The area within a _ mile of the shore between Kellet Bluff and Eagle Point and the area within a _ mile radius from the Limekiln light shall be a boat-free zone.
• Member vessels shall not reposition themselves using the leapfrog method.

Operation of vessels around Pinnipeds

1. When approaching pinniped haul-outs, vessels should slow down from at least 100 yards/meters away and approach slowly. At the first sign of disturbance (sea lions sitting up and shifting position or harbor seals bouncing on their bellies) vessels should slowly back away. The vessel and its passengers should refrain from making loud noises or sudden rapid movements. Particular caution should be exercised during pupping season (July/August).

 

 

 

Operation of vessels around birds

1. Caution should be exercised when approaching birds on land or on the water.

Approach slowly, watch for signs of agitation and leave slowly. Birds on the water should be given as wide a berth as is practical. Disturbance while fishing is probably more detrimental than disturbance while resting on land. There is a great deal of variation in how different species respond to marine traffic. Cormorants are particularly sensitive to disturbances when nesting although all nesting birds should be avoided. Extra caution should be exercised from nesting through fledging (beginning of May to the end of August). Vessels should approach very slowly and remain at least 100 yards/meters from rookeries. All operators should be aware of areas designated as refuges and remain 200 yards/meters away.

Operation of vessels around porpoises

1. All operators should be able to distinguish harbor porpoise from Dall’s porpoise.

2. When harbor porpoise are encountered, vessels should either (1) leave them alone or (2) if they wish to observe them, either (a) reduce speed as low as possible and maintain their course to their next destination or (b) STOP with engine off or in neutral and observe.

Under no circumstances should vessels attempt to engage harbor porpoise in bow riding.

3. When Dall’s porpoise are encountered vessels should either (a) continue their course and speed or (b) STOP and observe. If the porpoises decide to bow-ride vessels should continue their course and adjust their speed accordingly. Vessels should not repeatedly drive through groups of Dall’s porpoise in order to encourage them to bow-ride. If no porpoises are interested in bow riding after 2 passes, either continue on your way or stop to observe. Avoid circling.

4. When more than one vessel is with the same group of Dall’s porpoise who are actively bow riding, they should communicate and/or have one of the vessels parallel at a safe distance so that passengers can observe the bow riding on the other vessel.

5. Vessels should avoid congregating in a small area when looking for Dall’s porpoise.

Radio Etiquette

1. US Channel 09 should be monitored when on site and used for all communication on the water. Channel 16 should also be monitored at all times.

2. All operators should remember that customers in other boats and in dispatch offices are often able to hear conversations. Transmissions should be courteous and helpful, and use appropriate language.

Guiding/Naturalist Services

1. Member companies shall ensure that the services of an educated/trained naturalist are

available to passengers aboard their vessels.

2. Member companies shall ensure that passengers aboard their vessels are informed of whale-watch guidelines and association standards concerning marine wildlife viewing.

3. Operators should keep a logbook of sightings of all types including birds, cetaceans, pinnipeds and anything else of interest.

Hydrophone etiquette

1. A vessel with a hydrophone down should, if possible, fly a hydrophone flag (letter ‘R’ International system). Any vessel showing the hydrophone flag should be on US Channel 09. Vessels approaching a stationary vessel (or one flying the ‘R’ flag) should establish communications move to a position indicated by the stationary vessel as quickly as possible and then shut off their engine. A vessel departing should communicate their intention to the vessel listening with the hydrophone.

Vessel Operation

1. SHOW RESPECT FOR OTHER OPERATORS! Remember: do unto others, as you would have them do unto you.

2. Do not travel between a boat and the animals its passengers are observing or between a boat and the shoreline.

3. Do not accelerate or pass near other boats at cruising speed.

4. Do no operate loudspeakers near shore – especially in residential areas – or when boats are closely grouped.

5. If you have a complaint about the conduct of a fellow operator, do not voice it over the VHF radio. Offer a helpful suggestion in a courteous manner or discuss the issue in person, by phone, or using a courtesy reminder after the incident. Do not criticize an operator in front of his/her customers.

Research and Education

1. Association members should support local whale research by providing written records of sighting information to bona fide research groups and through association approved financial support of selected research activity.

2. In the interest of good public relations and general good will, association members shall, as occasion warrants, adopt a friendly and educational (rather than punitive)

approach with recreational boaters operating in flagrant violation of guidelines.

3. The association shall endeavor to collaborate with and secure the support of the US and Canadian Coast Guards and Fisheries enforcement authorities as well as concerned island residents. A collaborative and cooperative approach has much more to offer than a distant, threatening or defensive one.

  

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Mosquito Fleet
1724 W. Marine View Drive, Everett, WA 98201
(425) 252-6800, (800) 325-ORCA (6722)
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 Personal Communication with Author 

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